Risk factors for gestational diabetes mellitus among women screened with the two-step and one-step methods: A before-and-after study

Objective

To compare the risk profiles for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) using a one-step and two-step screening method and diagnostic criteria.

Women's experiences of being screened for gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: To assess if women screening positive for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) will experience a reduction in their quality of life. DESIGN: Prospective survey SETTING: Level III teaching hospital with a high-risk pregnancy service and neonatal intensive care unit. POPULATION: Pregnant women prior to being screened for GDM, after screening and late in pregnancy METHODS: Women were surveyed using the six-item short-form of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and Short Form 36 Item Health Survey Further questions asked about the mother's perception of health and the concern the mother felt for the health of her unborn child, the adequacy of information given about the screening tests and its results, adequacy of information about the results of the diagnostic OGTT and women's overall experiences of being screened. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Anxiety, depression, health status, concerns about the health of the baby and perceived health. RESULTS: After screening, women screening positive for GDM had lower health perceptions (p < 0.05), were less likely to rate their health as 'much better than one year ago' (p < 0.05) and were more likely to only rate their health as 'fair' rather than 'very good' or 'excellent' when compared with women screening negative (p < 0.01). No differences were found in levels of anxiety, depression or the concern women felt about the health of their baby CONCLUSIONS: Screening for GDM had an adverse impact on women's perceptions of their own health.     

Carbohydrate disturbances among women after gestational diabetes mellitus

Gestational diabetes (GDM) is regarded as a predilecting factor for a subsequent development of diabetes or other disturbances in carbohydrate metabolism. The aim of the study was to evaluate the risk of occurrence of failures in carbohydrate metabolism in females who sufferred from GDM, as well as to determine the prognostic values of selected markers that were regarded as factors favouring the development of diabetes mellitus (DM). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Patients who in the past suffered from GDM were subjected to this study. Out of 153 patients who responded positively to the written invitation to participate in this study, 74 had already been treated for DM. In 5 of them, abnormal glucose tolerance was found, and 74 of this group had been subjected to a 75g OGTT. The control group consisted of 153 subjects, who had given birth at least twice and in whom the metabolic diagnostics performed during the first pregnancy excluded GDM. Results of our study have revealed that patients who in the past had sufferred from GDM constituted a group with high risk for developing disturbances in carbohydrate metabolism or symptoms of metabolic syndrome after pregnancy. The main factors pro the development of the disturbances in carbohydrante metabolism were: overweight, increased fasting glycemia at the time of GDM diagnosis and insulin requirement during pregnancy. CONCLUSION: High percentage of diagnosis of an impaired carbohydrate metabolism and DM, calls for a special attention toward a group of patients with previous GDM, for a properly directed treatment that would enable a considerable delay in the development of an overt diabetes, as well as would apply a rational therapy, that would result in an optimal control of existing diabetes.     

Decreased perinatal mortality among women with diet-controlled gestational diabetes mellitus

Objective

To examine pregnancy outcomes associated with diet-controlled gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM A1).

Methods

A retrospective cohort study compared pregnancy characteristics of women with and without GDM A1 at a center where GDM A1 patients are routinely induced at 40 weeks.

Results

Higher rates of complications such as shoulder dystocia, congenital malformation, and macrosomia were observed in GDM A1 patients. A lower incidence of perinatal mortality was present in GDM A1 women compared with women without GDM A1. This association lost its significance when controlled for maternal age, ethnicity, induction, cesarean delivery, and birth weight in a multivariate model. Although the stillbirth rate before 40 weeks of gestation was identical among all participants, after 40 weeks it was significantly higher in women without GDM A1.

Conclusion

Induction of women with GDM A1 at 40 weeks may play a role in lowering perinatal mortality to below that of the general population.     

Pregnancy outcome in gestational diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To assess maternal and neonatal outcomes of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) following glycemic screening and diabetic management, with special focus on concurrent GDM and pre-eclampsia. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of 782 women diagnosed with and treated for GDM at a Chinese university teaching hospital. Data on maternal and neonatal outcome, glycemic control, concurrent pre-eclampsia, and diabetic management were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: The incidence of GDM was 3.8%. Of the affected women, 62.9% were managed with diet only and the remainder received insulin treatment. Overall, 80.7% had good glycemic control. Poor glycemic control and concurrent pre-eclampsia correlated with maternal and neonatal complications. CONCLUSION: Aggressive management for tight glycemic control improves maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with GDM.     

妊娠期糖尿病药物治疗新进展

随着经济和生活方式的改变,全球妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM)的发病率呈上升趋势,越来越多的GDM患者需要接受孕期咨询和治疗,药物治疗是GDM综合治疗措施中的一个重要组成部分[1].妊娠期间可供临床使用的降糖药物有两大类:一类是胰岛素,另一类是口服降糖药.胰岛素是目前公认的、惟一能够在妊娠期使用的降糖药物,也是妊娠期首选的降糖药物.     

Perinatal complications in women with gestational diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to examine the outcome of the pregnancy and neonatal period in 1) women with gestational diabetes mellitus and non-diabetic pregnant women, and 2) in women with early and late diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus. METHODS: Included were 327 women with gestational diabetes mellitus and 295 non-diabetic women, who were screened with a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test because of risk factors for gestational diabetes. Women with gestational diabetes mellitus were treated with low-caloric diet and insulin when appropriate, while women in the control group received routine antenatal care. RESULTS: Gestational age at delivery was significantly lower in the group with gestational diabetes mellitus, both when considering all deliveries (39.1+/-1.7 weeks versus 39.8+/-2.0 weeks, p<0.05) and only those with spontaneous onset of labor (38.8+/-2.0 weeks versus 40.0+/-1.6 weeks, p<0.05). The frequency of macrosomia was increased, although not statistically significant (8% vs. 2%, p=0.07), and the rate of admission to the neonatal ward was significantly increased (18% vs. 9%, p<0.05) in the group with gestational diabetes. Women with early diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus had a significantly increased need for insulin treatment during pregnancy (36% vs. 9% p<0.05) and a significantly higher occurrence of diabetes mellitus at follow-up from two months until three years postpartum. CONCLUSIONS: This study of women with gestational diabetes mellitus and non-diabetic pregnant women showed that gestational diabetes mellitus was associated with a significantly lower gestational age at delivery and an increased rate of admission to the neonatal ward. Women diagnosed with GDM before 20 weeks of gestation had an increased need for insulin treatment during pregnancy and a high risk of subsequent overt DM, compared with women diagnosed with GDM later in pregnancy.     

Offspring birth weight and maternal fasting lipids in women screened for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM)

Objectives

Maternal lipid metabolism is altered during pregnancy but little is known about the influence of these alterations on either intrauterine fetal development or maternal wellbeing. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between both fasting cholesterol and triglycerides and offspring birth weight in women screened selectively for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

Study design

In a prospective observational study in a University Maternity Hospital, women were recruited at their convenience when they were screened for GDM with a diagnostic 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). An additional sample was taken for a lipid profile at the time the fasting glucose was obtained. Clinical and socio-demographic details were recorded.

Results

Of the 189 women recruited, the mean age was 32 years, 35.4% (n = 67) were primigravidas, 44.1% (n = 82) were obese and 11.6% (n = 22) had an abnormal OGTT. On univariate analysis, increasing birth weight was correlated positively with multiparity, first trimester body mass index (BMI), GDM and hypertriglyceridaemia but not with cholesterol levels. On multivariate analysis, increased birth weight correlated positively only with hypertriglyceridaemia.

Conclusions

This study provides further evidence that maternal hypertriglyceridaemia is important in programming intrauterine fetal growth and raises questions about whether women should be screened selectively for dyslipidaemia before, during and after pregnancy.     

低危孕妇行妊娠期糖尿病筛选可行性研究

目的 :确定美国糖尿病协会 (ADA)推荐的妊娠期糖尿病筛选方案是否适合上海地区。方法 :1999年 5月～ 1999年 8月对上海地区 11家医院产前检查的 2 4～ 36孕周的 1910例孕妇 ,进行 75g口服葡萄糖耐量试验 (OGTT)。OGTT 3项指标中有 2项或 2项以上超过以下数值为妊娠期糖尿病 (GDM ) :空腹血糖值 (FBG) :5.3mmol L、服糖后 1h、2h(PG1、PG2 )值分别为 :10 .0mmol L、8.6mmol L。有一项异常者称为OGTT单项异常 (IGT)。比较低危人群组 (年龄 <2 5岁 ,孕前体重指数 <2 5kg m2 ,无家族糖尿病病史 ,无巨大儿、死胎、畸胎史 )及高危人群组GDM及IGT发病率的差异 ,及其两组围产儿预后和母亲妊娠高血压综合征发病的差异。结果 :1910例孕妇中低危人群组 4 0 5例 ,高危人群组 150 5例。GDM分别为 3例 (0 .74 % )和 52例 (3.4 6% )。IGT分别为 30例 (7.4 % )和 12 0例 (8.0 % ) ,低危人群组和高危人群组IGT者及GDM者中大于胎龄儿、巨大儿、剖宫产及妊高征发生率均无统计学差异 (P >0 .0 5)。结论 :ADA推荐的妊娠期糖尿病筛选方案不适合上海地区     

Pregnancy and delivery course in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to assess mother and fetal outcome in gestational diabetic women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study covered 689 patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. All women had been taken care of II Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Warsaw Medical University in 1997-2001 years. The following parameters were analyzed: the patients ages, past obstetric experience, gestational age of GDM diagnosis, pregnancy complications, delivery course and neonatal outcomes. RESULTS: Among study group 11.9% patients required insulin to maintain blood glucose concentration in normal range. GDM was mostly (44.1%) diagnosed between 29 and 34 weeks of pregnancy. At the recommended gestational age of screening tests--24-28 weeks--there were detected only 33.4% GDM. The most frequent pregnancy complication was imminent preterm delivery (16.7%). Delivery at term occurred of 89.1% of cases. Percentage of preterm deliveries was 10.9%. Spontaneous vaginal deliveries were the most frequent (72.5%). 23.2% women were delivered by Cesarean section. The most frequent indication of surgical labor were the symptoms of intrauterine fetal asphyxia (35.6%) and cephalo-pelvic disproportion (26.3%). Most of the newborn (83.3%) had normal birth weight between 2500 g and 4000 g. Among infants the most frequent complications were: hyperbilirubinemia (17.3%) and hypoglicemia (15.6%). Intranatal death occurred in 0.1% of cases, whereas neonatal death--0.4%. Congenital defects were found in 4.3% of all offspring. The most frequent congenital malformation was heart defect--1.3% of newborns (almost half of all congenital defects) CONCLUSIONS: Early diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus and specialists obstetric surveillance prevent of pregnancy complications and perinatal mortality, morbidity.     

Factors related to exclusive breastfeeding among postpartum Thai women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the factors related to exclusive breastfeeding among postpartum Thai women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus. Background: Postpartum women with diabetes are more likely to have delayed lactogenesis. Strict glycaemic control may affect lactation. Methods: A cross-sectional analytic research was designed to carry out the study. One hundred and fifty participants were included in the study. Data were collected in two phases using the Exclusive Breastfeeding questionnaire. Data were analysed using Pearson correlation, independent t-test and binary logistic regression. Results: The significant factors related to the 6-month exclusive breastfeeding were maternal age, employment, parity, body mass index, duration of newborn’s admission in NICU and exclusive breastfeeding intention. Conclusion: These findings indicate that effective nursing interventions need to be implemented for promoting exclusive breastfeeding among postpartum women with diabetes.     

妊娠期糖尿病合并妊娠期肝内胆汁淤积症母儿结局探讨

目的:探讨妊娠期糖尿病合并妊娠期肝内胆汁淤积症对孕产妇和国产儿结局的影响。方法:分析17例GDM合并ICP患者和85例单纯GDM患者的临床资料。结果:两组间孕妇分娩孕周差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。两组先兆早产、早产、酮症、胎膜早破、羊水过多、胎盘早剥、剖宫产、产后出血、宫内生长受限、胎儿宫内窘迫、巨大儿、新生儿低血糖、新生儿窒息和呼吸窘迫综合征、胎儿畸形、死胎、死产发生率比较,差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论:对妊娠期糖尿病合并妊娠肝内胆汁淤积症患者早诊早治,有效控制血糖及胆汁酸,适时终止妊娠可改善围产儿结局。     

Predictive factors of developing diabetes mellitus in women with gestational diabetes

BACKGROUND: To investigate which factors during gestational diabetes pregnancies correlate with the risk of developing impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes 1 year postpartum and to compare this risk in women with gestational diabetes and women with a normal oral glucose tolerance test during pregnancy. METHODS: Of 315 women with gestational diabetes, defined as a 2-hr blood glucose value of at least 9.0 mmol/l at a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test, who delivered in Lund 1991-99, 229 (73%) performed a new test 1 year postpartum. We compared maternal and fetal factors during pregnancy with the test value at follow up. A control group of 153 women with a 2-hr test value below 7.8 mmol/l during pregnancy were invited to a new test 1 year postpartum and 60 (39%) accepted. RESULTS: At 1 year follow up, 31% of the women with gestational diabetes but only one of the 60 controls showed pathologic glucose tolerance and one had developed diabetes. The following factors in women with gestational diabetes were identified as predicting impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes at 1 year follow up: maternal age over 40 and--in a multiple regression analysis, independent of each other--a high 2-hr value at oral glucose tolerance test during pregnancy and insulin treatment during pregnancy. CONCLUSION: The risk of developing manifest diabetes after gestational diabetes may be high enough to justify a general screening or diagnostic procedure in all pregnant women to identify women with gestational diabetes and a postpartum follow up program for them. This study did not identify any particular factor during pregnancy with enough precision to predict a later progression to diabetes.     

Twin pregnancy outcomes for women with gestational diabetes mellitus compared with glucose tolerant women

OBJECTIVE: To examine pregnancy outcomes for women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and a twin pregnancy compared with glucose tolerant women with a twin pregnancy. DESIGN: Comparison of selected pregnancy outcomes. SETTING: Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia. POPULATION: Women with GDM seen over a 10-year period by an endocrinologist, and women from a selected year of an obstetric database including Wollongong and Shellharbour Hospitals. METHODS: Examination of pregnancy outcome data from the two sources. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Fetal birthweights and method of delivery. RESULTS: There were 28 GDM women with a twin pregnancy from 1229 consecutive referrals (2.3%) of women with GDM for medical management. For comparison there were 29 glucose tolerant women with twin pregnancies evaluable who had delivered over a 1-year period. For the women with GDM and a twin pregnancy there were no significant differences in demographics or outcomes except for a higher rate of elective Caesarean section. CONCLUSION: The higher rate of Caesarean section appeared to be related to the combination of a twin pregnancy and GDM rather than the twin pregnancy or the GDM independently.     

妊娠期糖尿病的产后随访

妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM)患者及其后代均是糖尿病(diabetes mellitus,DM)的高危人群[1-5],这些人群同时存在高血压及肥胖的风险[6-7].GDM产后随访工作,将有效减少或延缓DM及其合并症的发生.     

Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus in southern Asian women

AIM: To compare fasting plasma glucose (FPG) against 2-h postprandial plasma glucose (PPPG), following a carbohydrate meal, for screening of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in southern Asian women with one or more risk factors. METHODS: A comparative study was conducted at a university obstetric unit in Sri Lanka. Two hundred and seventy one women undergoing oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) according to the WHO criteria of 1999 had a 2-h PPPG performed within the following week. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values and correlation coefficients for predicting a diagnosis of GDM and areas under receiver-operator curves (ROC) were calculated for FPG and PPPG. The ability to predict GDM and to reduce the need for OGTT were the main outcome measures. RESULTS: The mean period of gestation was 26.43 weeks (SD = 5.4) Seventy-five (27.7%) women were diagnosed with GDM. The optimal threshold for FPG was 4.4 mmol/L and for PPPG 4.7 mmol/L. At these, sensitivity was 92.0% and 90.7%, specificity 48.7% and 25.4% and the areas under the ROC 0.82 and 0.73 for FPG and PPPG, respectively. Nine (12%) women could be diagnosed as having GDM on the basis of the FPG being above the threshold. CONCLUSIONS: FPG is superior to 2-h PPPG for screening high-risk women for GDM. Nine women were diagnosed as having GDM on the basis of having an FPG above 7 mmol/L. FPG could reduce the number of OGTT needed by 40.9%, compared to 20.6% by PPPG. FPG is a less cumbersome and cost-effective screening test.     

A composite risk assessment model to screen for gestational diabetes mellitus among Mediterranean women

ObjectiveTo determine whether clinical risk assessment for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) may preclude the need for universal screening with an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in situations of economic restraint.MethodsWomen with either GDM (n = 119) or normal glucose tolerance (n = 1249) were recruited from centers among 11 Mediterranean countries between August 1, 2010, and May 31, 2011. Outcome measures included anthropomorphic and biological data, obstetric outcomes, and infant outcomes.ResultsSignificant risk factors for GDM included maternal age of 30 years or more; elevated body mass index (BMI, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters); elevated diastolic blood pressure; previous history of macrosomia; and family history of diabetes mellitus. These factors each had high specificity but low sensitivity for predicting GDM; however, when used in combination, sensitivity increased but specificity fell. Fasting blood glucose (FBG) level had high sensitivity (73.9%) and specificity (90.2%) for predicting GDM. Sensitivity was further increased by combining FBG measurement with maternal age and BMI (96.6%).ConclusionUse of a composite model to prescreen women for GDM risk may reduce the need for universal screening with the OGTT among centers facing health-cost pressures.