Distribution of the Glutamate/Aspartate Transporter GLAST in Relation to the Afferent Synapses of Outer Hair Cells in the Guinea Pig Cochlea

The glutamate/aspartate transporter GLAST is known to occur in the plasma membrane of supporting cells and their glialike processes around the synaptic region of inner hair cells of the mammalian cochlea. Its function there is presumably to take up glutamate following the release of this putative amino acid neurotransmitter from the inner hair cells. In this study, we have investigated whether GLAST is also associated with the outer hair cells using postembedding immunogold labeling. This is interesting because it is uncertain whether the outer hair cells have a functional synapse at which glutamate may be released. However, earlier ultrastructural studies of the afferent synapses in outer hair cells in several mammalian species have shown features normally associated with synaptic activity. These observations are confirmed and extended here in guinea pig where these afferent synapses have presynaptic bodies, putative synaptic vesicles, and coated pits associated with them. Immunoreactivity for GLAST was found along the plasma membranes of Deiters' cells, especially around the synaptic region of the hair cell, on processes wrapped around approaching nerve fibers. Semiquantitative analysis of the distribution of immunogold labeling of Deiters' cells confirmed that it was densest in the region adjacent to the synapses. There was also more labeling in apical than in basal regions of the cochlea in three of the four animals examined, suggesting an association with the number of afferent synapses, which are more numerous in apical regions. Interestingly, labeling also occurred in other regions of the cell membrane away from the afferent terminals. This suggests that glutamate uptake is also required away from the immediate vicinity of synapses, perhaps as a consequence of glutamate dispersal resulting from the mechanical displacement of the cochlear partition during stimulation. Nonetheless, the particular association of GLAST with the synaptic region of the outer hair cell implies that the latter have active afferent synapses at which glutamate is released.     

胆碱乙酰化酶在人体耳蜗的定位

应用免疫细胞化学方法，研究胆碱乙酰化酶在人体耳蜗的定位。结果发现，胆碱乙酰化酶定位于人体耳蜗传出神经系统。实验表明，乙酰胆碱是人体耳蜗的传出神经递质     

Localization of Nitric Oxide Synthase Isoforms in the Human Cochlea

The location of nitric oxide (NO) in the structures of the cochlea is a topical issue. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) has been detected previously in mammalian cochleae, but information on its presence in the human cochlea is still sparse. The location of NOS isoforms I, II and III in substructures of the human cochlea was studied by immunohistochemistry (fluorescein isothiocyanate technique) using monoclonal antibodies to NOS I, II and III. NOS I was the predominant isoform and staining could be observed in cells of the spiral ganglion (SG), in nerve fibres and in the outer hair cells (OHC). Furthermore, the supporting cells of the organ of Corti and the stria vascularis showed a fluorescent reaction to NOS I. Staining for NOS III was less intense and was located in the OHC, supporting cells and SG cells, while the stria vascularis remained unstained. By contrast, NOS II showed weak staining in a few neuron fibres only. The results imply that NO in the human cochlea could act as a neurotransmitter/neuromodulator at the level of neural cells and may be involved in the physiology of the supporting cells and stria vascularis. Moreover, because NO is both a mediator of excitotoxicity and a non-specifically toxic radical, it may also play a role in neurotoxicity of the human cochlea.     

Hensen细胞对耳蜗功能的调节

既往人们认为Hensen细胞仅仅起到支撑毛细胞、稳定基底膜结构的作用。新近研究提示,Hensen细胞可以通过释放脂滴增加网状板层和盖膜之间的空间距离,改变毛细胞纤毛与盖膜之间的剪切力,从而调制微音电位(CM);Hensen细胞中脂滴分布从底圈到顶圈逐渐增加,并通过释放脂滴调节基底膜的劲度和质量、以及基底膜不同部位的驻波共振的形成。可见Hensen细胞参与了耳蜗机械调节,增强了耳蜗的敏感性以及感受声音的频率选择性。此外,Hensen细胞还释放ANXA1蛋白参与耳蜗炎症反应、以及可能利用脂滴释放脂肪酸为毛细胞提供营养。本文为研究耳聋发生发展机制提供新线索。     

Reciprocal Synapses Between Outer Hair Cells and their Afferent Terminals: Evidence for a Local Neural Network in the Mammalian Cochlea

Cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs) serve both as sensory receptors and biological motors. Their sensory function is poorly understood because their afferent innervation, the type-II spiral ganglion cell, has small unmyelinated axons and constitutes only 5% of the cochlear nerve. Reciprocal synapses between OHCs and their type-II terminals, consisting of paired afferent and efferent specialization, have been described in the primate cochlea. Here, we use serial and semi-serial-section transmission electron microscopy to quantify the nature and number of synaptic interactions in the OHC area of adult cats. Reciprocal synapses were found in all OHC rows and all cochlear frequency regions. They were more common among third-row OHCs and in the apical half of the cochlea, where 86% of synapses were reciprocal. The relative frequency of reciprocal synapses was unchanged following surgical transection of the olivocochlear bundle in one cat, confirming that reciprocal synapses were not formed by efferent fibers. In the normal ear, axo-dendritic synapses between olivocochlear terminals and type-II terminals and/or dendrites were as common as synapses between olivocochlear terminals and OHCs, especially in the first row, where, on average, almost 30 such synapses were seen in the region under a single OHC. The results suggest that a complex local neuronal circuitry in the OHC area, formed by the dendrites of type-II neurons and modulated by the olivocochlear system, may be a fundamental property of the mammalian cochlea, rather than a curiosity of the primate ear. This network may mediate local feedback control of, and bidirectional communication among, OHCs throughout the cochlear spiral.     

Glutamate is the afferent neurotransmitter in the human cochlea

Glutamate, the most important afferent neurotransmitter in the auditory system, is thought to be the afferent transmitter between the cochlear inner hair cells and afferent neurons, hitherto visualized only in the cochlea of animal species. It has been identified for the first time in sections from the human inner ear. L-glutamate, NMDAR2B and the enzyme glutamine synthetase were identified by using monoclonal antibodies. The distribution pattern of the transmitter L-glutamate in the human cochlea is similar to that observed in other mammals. L-glutamate was identified adjacent to outer and inner hair cells and in the spiral ganglion. Similar distributions were found for glutamine synthetase and the ionotropic NMDA receptor subunit NMDAR2. The identification of neurotransmitters and their receptors in the human cochlea has implications for the pharmacotherapy of inner ear diseases.     

Scanning Electron Microscopic Examination of the Extracellular Matrix in the Decellularized Mouse and Human Cochlea

Decellularized tissues have been used to investigate the extracellular matrix (ECM) in a number of different tissues and species. Santi and Johnson JARO 14:3-15 (2013) first described the decellularized inner ear in the mouse, rat, and human using scanning thin-sheet laser imaging microscopy (sTSLIM). The purpose of the present investigation is to examine decellularized cochleas in the mouse and human at higher resolution using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Fresh cochleas were harvested and decellularized using detergent extraction methods. Following decellularization, the ECM of the bone, basilar membrane, spiral limbus, and ligament remained, and all of the cells were removed from the cochlea. A number of similarities and differences in the ECM of the mouse and human were observed. A novel, spirally directed structure was present on the basilar membrane and is located at the border between Hensen and Boettcher cells. These septa-like structures formed a single row in the mouse and multiple rows in the human. The basal lamina of the stria vascularis capillaries was present and appeared thicker in the human compared with the mouse. In the mouse, numerous openings beneath the spiral prominence that previously housed the root processes of the external sulcus cells were observed but in the human there was only a single row of openings. These and other anatomical differences in the ECM between the mouse and human may reflect functional differences and/or be due to aging; however, decellularized cochleas provide a new way to examine the cochlear ECM and reveal new observations.     

Cochleovestibular Afferent Pathways of Trapezius Muscle Responses to Clicks in Human

Brief intense clicks cause short-latency cervical muscles microcontractions which are supposed to be of vestibular origin. Averaging these microcontractions allows myogenic vestibular evoked potentials (MVEP) to be obtained. MVEP from the trapezius muscles were investigated in normal subjects, cochleovestibular nerve-damaged patients and patients with a vestibular or a cochlear lesion. Muscular responses were recorded on right and left trapezius by averaging from surface electrodes following right and left monaural 100 dB hearing level click stimulation. In normal subjects, responses to monaural stimuli were bilateral, of equal amplitude and latency in left and right trapezia. Normal response consisted of four consecutive waves, labelled p13, n23, p32 and n40 according to their polarity (p, positive; n, negative) and mean peak latency in msec. In total unilateral cochleovestibular damaged patients, auditory stimulation of the affected side gave no MVEP either ipsilateral or contralateral to the stimulation. In the case of selective cochlear lesion, stimulation of the affected side gave MVEP which was present on ipsilateral and controlateral trapezius muscles. The four successive waves were present with a normal latency; however, amplitude was lower than that obtained after stimulation of the healthy ear. In the case of selective vestibular lesion, the four waves of MVEP were again present with normal latency but with reduced amplitude. Responses were present on both the ipsilateral and controlateral trapezius muscle. It is concluded that normal MVEP recorded on the trapezius muscles are bilateral and consist of four waves, the amplitude of which could depend on the simultaneous stimulation of both cochlear and vestibular afferents. In the case of unilateral cochlear and/or vestibular impairments responses were present on both ipsilateral and contralateral trapezius muscles. Latencies had normal values but amplitudes were reduced. MEVP recorded on trapezius muscles were absent in the case of total cochleovestibular damage.     

谷氨酸／天冬氨酸转运体抗体对豚鼠听性脑干反应及毛细胞形态的影响

目的 研究谷氨酸/天冬氨酸转运体(glutamate--aspartate transporter,GLAST)抗体对豚鼠耳蜗听性脑干反应(ABR)和耳蜗毛细胞形态的影响.方法 健康豚鼠20只随机分为实验组和对照组,每组10只.实验组耳蜗鼓阶内灌注GLAST抗体,对照组灌注人工外淋巴液,观察两组术后3、6、9天ABR反应阈、耳蜗基底膜铺片和透射电镜的形态学改变.结果 实验组术后第3天ABR波形消失,术后第9天无恢复;对照组术后第3天8只动物ABR波形消失,术后第6天和第9天全部动物引出ABR波形,平均阈值分别为62.50±5.25、47.50±6.18dB SPL,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).随着GLAST抗体灌注后时间延长,实验组内、外毛细胞及纤毛出现不同程度缺失,透射电镜显示内、外毛细胞及神经末梢胞浆、线粒体空化,细胞核染色质边集等凋亡早期征象.对照组的损伤较轻,与ABR阈值改变相一致.结论 耳蜗内GLAST抗体灌注后出现耳蜗毛细胞、神经末梢的损伤及ABR波形消失,提示GLAST抗体阻断耳蜗Corti器中的GLAST,导致谷氨酸的神经毒性表达.     

Maturation and Aging of the Human Cochlea: A View through the DPOAE Looking Glass

Cochlear function changes throughout the human lifespan. Distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) were recorded in 156 ears to examine these changes and speculate as to their mechanistic underpinnings. DPOAEs were analyzed within the context of current OAE generation theory, which recognizes distinct emission mechanisms. Seven age groups including premature newborns through senescent adults were tested with a swept-tone DPOAE protocol to examine magnitude and phase features of both the mixed DPOAE and individual distortion and reflection components. Results indicate (1) 6–8-month-old infants have the most robust DPOAE and component levels for frequencies >1.5 kHz; (2) older adults show a substantial reduction in DPOAE and distortion-component levels combined with a smaller drop in reflection-component levels; (3) all age groups manifest a violation of distortion phase invariance at frequencies below 1.5 kHz consistent with a secular break in cochlear scaling; the apical phase delay is markedly longer in newborns; and (4) phase slope of reflection emissions is most shallow in the older adults. Combined findings suggest that basilar membrane motion in the apical half of the cochlea is immature at birth and that the cochlea of senescent adults shows reduced nonlinearity and relatively shallow reflection-component phase slope, which can be interpreted to suggest degraded tuning.     

Wasserregulation in der Cochlea

Background

Sound transduction in the cochlea critically depends on the circulation of potassium ions (K⁺) along so-called “K⁺ recycling routes” between the endolymph and perilymph. These K⁺ currents generate high ionic and osmotic gradients, which potentially impair the excitability of sensory hair cells and threaten cell survival in the entire cochlear duct. Molecular water channels—aquaporins (AQP)—are expressed in all cochlear supporting cells along the K⁺ recycling routes; however, their significance for osmotic equilibration in cochlear duct cells is unknown.

Methods

The diffusive and osmotic water permeabilies of Reissner’s membrane, the organ of Corti and the entire cochlear duct epithelium were determined. Expression of the potassium channel Kir4.1 and the water channel AQP4 in the cochlear duct was investigated by immunohistochemistry.

Results

The calculated water permeability values indicate the extent of AQP-facilitated water flux across the cochlear duct epithelium. Immunohistochemically, Kir4.1 and AQP4 were found to colocalize in distinct membrane domains of supporting cells along the K⁺-recycling routes.

Conclusion

These observations suggest the presence of a rapid AQP-mediated water exchange between the endolymph, the cells of the cochlear duct and the perilymph. The subcellular colocalization of Kir4.1 and AQP4 in epithelial supporting cells indicates functional coupling of potassium and water flow in the cochlea. Finally, this offers an explanation for the hearing impairment observed in individuals with mutations in the AQP4 gene.     

Reflection- and Distortion-Source Otoacoustic Emissions: Evidence for Increased Irregularity in the Human Cochlea During Aging

Previous research on distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) components has hinted at possible differences in the effect of aging on the two basic types of OAEs: those generated by a reflection mechanism in the cochlea and those created by nonlinear distortion (Abdala and Dhar in J Assoc Res Otolaryngol 13:403–421, 2012). This initial work led to the hypothesis that micromechanical irregularity (“roughness”) increases in the aging cochlea, perhaps as the result of natural tissue degradation. Increased roughness would boost the backscattering of traveling waves (i.e., reflection emissions) while minimally impacting DPOAEs. To study the relational effect of aging on both types of emissions and address our hypothesis of its origin, we measured reflection- and distortion-type OAEs in 77 human subjects aged 18–76 years. The stimulus-frequency OAE (SFOAE), a reflection emission, and the distortion component of the DPOAE, a nonlinear distortion emission, were recorded at multiple stimulus levels across a four-octave range in all ears. Although the levels of both OAE types decreased with age, the rate of decline in OAE level was consistently greater for DPOAEs than for SFOAEs; that is, SFOAEs are relatively preserved with advancing age. Multiple regression analyses and other controls indicate that aging per se, and not hearing loss, drives this effect. Furthermore, SFOAE generation was simulated using computational modeling to explore the origin of this result. Increasing the amount of mechanical irregularity with age produced an enhancement of SFOAE levels, providing support for the hypothesis that increased intra-cochlear roughness during aging may preserve SFOAE levels. The characteristic aging effect—relatively preserved reflection-emission levels combined with more markedly reduced distortion-emission levels—indicates that SFOAE magnitudes in elderly individuals depend on more than simply the gain of the cochlear amplifier. This relative pattern of OAE decline with age may provide a diagnostic marker for aging-related changes in the cochlea.     

多巴胺对豚鼠耳蜗谷氨酸受体NMDA NR_1和NMDA NR_(2A)的调节作用

目的观察豚鼠耳蜗谷氨酸受体NMDANR1和NMDANR2A与多巴胺调节作用的相关性,探讨多巴胺在内毛细胞下突触复合体中的作用机制。方法选用杂色豚鼠40只,随机分组,每组10只．分别以右耳行全耳蜗灌流人工外淋巴液和不同浓度的多巴胺,并以人工外淋巴液灌流组的对侧耳蜗作为正常对照组,则共为5组（每组10耳）：①正常对照组;②人工外淋巴液组;③10mmol／L多巴胺组;④30mmol／L多巴胺组;⑤50mmol／L多巴胺组。在灌流前、灌流0、1、2h同时记录各组动物耳蜗电图,应用半定量RT—PCR的方法,观察各组间谷氨酸受体NMDANR1和NMDANR2A的mRNA表达量是否有差异。结果多巴胺对豚鼠4000Hz耳蜗复合动作电位产生抑制作用,使其阈值升高,且这种抑制作用呈现明显的量效依赖关系。与正常对照组和人工外淋巴液组比较,其余三组谷氨酸受体NMDANR1的mRNA表达量明显减少（P〈0．05）,NMDANR1的表达量与灌流多巴胺的浓度呈现明显的浓度剂量依赖关系;谷氨酸受体NMDANR2A的mRNA表达量在各组间差异均无统计学意义（P〉0．05）,随着灌流多巴胺浓度的增加,NMDANR2A的表达量没有明显变化。结论多巴胺可通过减少谷氨酸受体NMDANR1的量来实现对听觉通路抑制的作用,而谷氨酸受体NMDANR2A不参与多巴胺的抑制作用。     

Adaptation of Action Potentials in the Cochlea

Résumé

1. Si I'on donne comme stimulus acoustique une série de chocs de sons, alors les potentiels d'action (AP) dans la cochlée diminuent, et d'autant plus à mesure que l'intervalle de temps entre les chocs est plus court.

2. Si I'on donne une série de chocs de sons, tandis qu'il existe déja un stimulus de bruit blanc, alors ce bruit blanc a la měme influence, comme si un certain nombre de chocs de sons avait précédé déja la série des chocs de sons.

3. Le bruit blanc produit une baisse du AP pour des chocs de sons, aussi bien pendant que directement après le stimulus de bruit blanc. Si l'on donne, après la fin du bruit blanc, un choc de son, alors le AP pour ce choc de son augmente, lorsque la différence de temps entre la fin du bruit blanc et le choc de son devient plus grand. Cet accroissement se produit de la měme manière que lorsque dans une série de chocs de sons, le temps entre les chocs séparés est augmenté.

Aussi croyons-nous devoir dire que la diminution du AP décrite, s'explique comme étant un effet du phénomène de masquage: ceci est une diminution de la réaction quand il y a déja un autre stimulus présent. L'adaptation par contre est une diminution de la réaction après un autre stimulus.

Il nous parait très vraisemblable que le masquage et l'adaptation décrite, mesurés à des potentiels d'action dans la cochlée, proviennent de la měme cause. Il est possible que ceci ait lieu via les fibres efférentes dans le nerf acoustique.     

Survival of Neural Stem Cells in the Cochlea

Adult rat hippocampus-derived neural stem cells (NSCs) have been reported to have been successfully grafted in several brain regions. To evaluate the possibility of treatment of sensorineural hearing loss using NSCs, survival of NSCs in the cochlea was estimated. NSCs were grafted into newborn rat cochleas. Within 2-4 weeks of grafting to the cochlea, some NSCs survived in the cochlear cavity. Some of them had adopted the morphologies and positions of hair cells. This suggests that NSCs can adapt to the environment of the cochlea and gives hope for treatment of the damaged cochlea and sensorineural hearing loss.     

小鼠耳蜗Na-K-2Cl联合转运子-1的定位及其缺失后的耳蜗组织学改变

目的探讨耳蜗钾循环途径中Na-K-2Cl联合转运子-1(Na-K-2Clcotransporter-1,NKCC1)在小鼠耳蜗的分布及NKCC1基因敲除后耳蜗组织学的改变。方法选用10只C57BL/6J小鼠((NCKK1 / )和5只NKCC1基因敲除小鼠(NKCC1-/-),应用听性脑干反应(auditorybrainstemresponse,ABR)分别检测NCKK1 / 小鼠和NKCC1-/-小鼠的听功能,采用免疫组织化学及甲苯胺蓝染色的方法观察NKCC1在NCKK1 / 小鼠耳蜗的定位及NKCC1-/-小鼠耳蜗组织学的变化。结果NCKK1 / 小鼠ABR平均阈值为31±5.36dBSPL,而NKCC1-/-小鼠听力完全丧失。NKCC1在NCKK1 / 型小鼠耳蜗主要分布在血管纹上皮(边缘细胞)和螺旋韧带下部纤维细胞,在纹上区和螺旋缘处的纤维细胞中也有适度表达;NKCC1-/-小鼠耳蜗前庭膜塌陷,中阶完全消失,内毛细胞、外毛细胞、支持细胞减少,Corti隧道消失。结论NKCC1在耳蜗的定位与耳蜗钾循环密切相关,NKCC1缺失会导致耳蜗正常结构的破坏,继而影响耳蜗生理功能。     

大鼠耳蜗发育过程中突触素的表达差异

目的 研究大鼠耳蜗发育过程中突触素(synaptophysin,SYN)的表达差异,探讨SYN表达与听觉功能发育成熟的关系及耳蜗中三磷酸腺苷(adenosine triphosphate,ATP)的来源.方法 选取健康SD大鼠25只,按出生后天数将其分为出生后1、5、10、14、28天组(即:P1、P5、P10、P14和P28组),每组5只,运用免疫组化的方法比较各组大鼠耳蜗中SYN的表达差异.结果 P1、P5和P10组大鼠顶回的Corti器、Kolliker器未发现SYN表达;P10组底回及蜗管中段、P14组和P28组Corti器的内、外螺旋束、Deiters细胞内侧缘有特异性表达;各组大鼠耳蜗螺旋神经元(spiral ganglion neuron,SGN)胞浆中均有SYN表达.结论 大鼠耳蜗发育过程中SYN的表达存在差异,这种差异有利于神经末梢和靶细胞间构型建立,对听觉系统发育中形成正确的听觉信息编码可能起着关键作用.毛细胞、支持细胞中的ATP可能以非囊泡或以非SYN特异性染色的囊泡形式储存.