Risk factors for chronicity in childhood otitis media with effusion

One hundred and ninety-one children who presented to the author’s clinic with otitis media with effusion (OME) over a 2-year period (1986–1988) have been studied prospectively. Resolution of their OME was considered to have occurred when they had normal findings on pneumatic otoscopy, tympanometry and audiometry on at least two occasions 6 months apart and had subjectively normal hearing in between. The number of operations performed during the course of the disease was used as a surrogate for chronicity. Children with a history of previous aural discharge at presentation were significantly more likely to have chronic OME (P = < 0.02).     

Eustachian tube closing failure in children with persistent middle ear effusion

One important role of the Eustachian tube is to protect the middle ear from the extensive physiological pressure variations that take place in the nasopharynx, for example on sniffing. In a previous investigation in 50 children with persistent middle ear effusion a surprisingly high percentage of ears were evacuated by sniffing. The present study was undertaken in a second series of children, and results were found to be reproducible. In total 156 ears in 100 children have been investigated. In 63% of ears (73% of subjects) evacuation of the middle ear took place on sniffing. Results show that Eustachian tube malfunction in these subjects is characterized by a reduced protective function; a condition denoted "Eustachian tube closing failure".     

Analysis of risk factors for childhood persistent middle ear effusion

Although exposure to infectious agents and parental smoking are known to influence the overall risk of otitis media, these risk factors do not appear to be linked with the tendency to develop chronic otitis media with effusion (COME) instead of recurrent acute otitis media (RAOM). The genetic inflammatory response type of the child appears to influence the risk of persistent middle ear effusion in COME.Two different clinical presentations of childhood otitis media are encountered: RAOM; and COME, which is associated with persistent effusion in the middle ear. The objective of this study was to assess putative factors that may regulate the development of persistent middle ear effusion in COME.In total, 159 children with RAOM and their parents (n=304), and 55 children with COME and their parents (n=110) were evaluated. All the children with COME or RAOM were aged <4 years.There was no difference in the frequency of attendance at day care outside the home, number of siblings or parental smoking between children with RAOM and those with COME. The frequency of parental allergy and asthma was lower among children with COME than those with RAOM.     

Ciliary beat frequency of nasal and middle ear mucosa in children with otitis media with effusion

Impaired mucociliary function of respiratory tract mucosa is associated with secretory otitis media in some well recognized syndromes. Ciliary activity per se may now be assessed directly by determination of ciliary beat frequency by a photoelectric technique.^1,2 49 children with otitis media with effusion undergoing surgical treatment were studied. Middle ear mucosa and nasal epithelial cells were obtained by biopsy and cytological brushings respectively at the time of surgery (myringotomy ± grommet insertion under general anaesthesia). From these samples mean nasal ciliary beat frequency was 11.0 Hz and mean middle ear ciliary beat frequency was 11.2 Hz. A positive correlation exists between mean ciliary beat frequency of nasal and middle ear samples from individual patients. A comparison of mean ciliary beat frequency between children who were effusion positive and effusion negative at the time of surgery revealed no statistically significant difference. In addition, no difference existed between those children with recurrent otitis media with effusion and newly presenting cases. No prima facie evidence exists of impaired ciliary function in this population of children with otitis media with effusion.     

Factors associated with positive bacteriological cultures of chronic middle ear effusions

Pathogenic bacteria have been isolated from middle ear effusions in a number of studies. Our aim was to identify factors which predispose to patients having positive cultures. Over a 1-year period, prospective data were collected on patients admitted for myringotomy. Middle ear effusions were collected at the time of surgery using specially designed traps, and underwent microscopy and culture. Data on local weather parameters were obtained from the Meteorological Office in Edinburgh, UK and compared with the patterns of positive cultures. A higher proportion of cultures were positive in October, November and December and in February and May than in the other months of the year. We were not able to relate these variations to any of the meteorological data, with the possible exception of relative humidity, or to any other variable.     

The effect of parental smoking on outcome after treatment for glue ear in children

A sample of 201 children aged between 2 and 9 years with bilateral chronic otitis media with effusion (OME) were treated prospectively and at random by adenoidectomy, adenotonsillectomy, or with neither procedure. In all cases only a unilateral grommet was inserted and the contralateral unoperated ear was examined one year post-operatively for persistence or resolution of the effusion. A self-administered questionnaire was completed by the parents concerning their smoking habits. The resolution of effusion following surgery was assessed in relation to smoking by the mother and father separately and in combination. Clearance of glue was statistically less frequent where the child's mother or where both parents smoked. This was related to the number of cigarettes smoked by the mother or both parents. The adverse effect was demonstrable whether or not adenoidectomy or adenotonsillectomy had been performed for treatment. The findings lend further support to professional and governmental opinions of a deleterious effect of passive smoke exposure on children and in this case parental smoking has been shown to have an adverse effect on the outcome of OME following surgical treatment.     

Neutrophil elastase-α1-antitrypsin in middle ear fluid in chronic otitis media with effusion

Neutrophil elastase-αl-antitrypsin was quantified in samples taken from middle ear effusions collected at operation from 17 children attending for elective myringotomy and grommet insertion. At the time of surgery the effusion was classified as serous or mucoid. Children with a recent history of infection or antimicrobial therapy were excluded. The quantification of immunoreactive neutrophil elastase was by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA). The mean value of neutrophil elastase-αl-antitrypsin was 50.6±38.3 (sd) μg/ml in mucoid effusions, which was significantly higher (P <0.05) than that in serous effusions (5.3±4.8 μg/m1). These results indicate that a mucoid effusion may reflect a more severe inflammatory response and that persistence of neutrophil activity in the middle ear mucosa may contribute to the persistence of at least one group of middle ear effusions.     

External ear resonance in children with otitis media with effusion

A middle ear effusion has been shown, in KEMAR, to increase the height of the resonant peak of the external auditory canal by 6 dB SPL. It has also been shown that the hearing impairment due to otitis media with effusion is related to the volume of middle ear fluid. Therefore, it was hypothesized that measurement of the height of the resonant peak of the external auditory canal could be used as a method of assessing the magnitude of any hearing impairment due to otitis media with effusion. 182 ears from 182 children aged 3–12 (mean 6.3) years were studied. Pure-tone audiometry and impedance tympanometry were performed, and the acoustics of the external auditory canal were measured using the Rastronics CCI-10 frequency response analyser. The mean height of the resonant peak (17.9 dB SPL) of children with a type A tympanogram was significantly different from the mean value (23.6 dB SPL) of those with a type B tympanogram. There was a significant correlation between the height of the resonant peak and the speech frequency average of the pure-tone thresholds. The sensitivity and specificity of using the height of the resonant peak to detect hearing impairments in different age groups were calculated and compared with the sensitivity and specificity of tympanometry. The test did not provide the same degree of sensitivity as tympanometry but was more specific. The additional advantages of the test are that it is quick, taking less than 1 min per ear, and is well tolerated by children in whom there was a 99% compliance. It is suggested that measurement of the height of the resonant peak of the external auditory canal holds potential as a quick and objective method of screening and monitoring the hearing impairment of children with otitis media with effusion.     

Predictive factors for the resolution of childhood otitis media with effusion following initial surgical treatment

A prospective study of outcome after treatment for glue ear was performed in a sample of 143 children aged between 1 and 11 years. The resolution or recurrence of effusion following initial surgery was analysed in relation to six potentially relevant factors. Multivariate analysis showed that resolution of effusion was statistically more frequent in ears found to have a dry tap at surgery, children with a history of atopy, those who underwent adenoidectomy and it was related to the age of the child at operation. Older children had a better prognosis. Univariate analysis suggested that girls have a significantly better outcome than boys, but this was not confirmed in multivariate analysis. The results suggest that there should be a longer period of observation in atopic individuals and older children. Furthermore, the study showed that ears with dry taps should not be treated with ventilation tubes.     

分泌性中耳炎中耳积液成分研究进展

分泌性中耳炎(SOM)是指以传导性聋及鼓室积液为主要特征的不伴有急性炎性表现的中耳积液的非化脓性中耳炎。其病因与生理机制复杂,以耳闷、耳鸣、耳痛等耳部症状为主,各年龄段均可发生,而学龄前儿童是高发人群。目前,SOM病因及发病机制尚未完全阐明,对SOM中耳积液的成分分析是研究SOM病因及发病机制的常见方法,也是指导临床治疗的重要途径,本文通过查阅国内外发表的相关文献,对SOM中耳积液的成分研究进展进行比较总结,以提高临床医师对该病的认识。     

负压型鼓室导抗图诊断成人鼓室积液的研究

目的:探讨负压型鼓室导抗图对成人鼓室积液的诊断价值.方法:采用美国GSI-Tympstar Ⅱ型中耳分析仪,对所有疑似分泌性中耳炎的成人患者行声导抗检查,包括鼓室导抗图峰压、宽度、中耳共振频率及镫骨肌反射,选择其中为负压型鼓室导抗图的207耳行鼓膜穿刺,根据穿刺积液量将患耳分为无积液组(123耳)、少量积液组(45耳)及多量积液组(39耳),分别就3组患者的声导抗指标及同侧镫骨肌反射引出情况进行统计学分析.结果:无积液组的鼓室导抗图峰压、中耳共振频率与少量积液组和多量积液组之间的差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05或P<0.01);无积液组鼓室导抗图宽度与多量积液组之间的差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);3组间的同侧镫骨肌反射引出情况均差异有统计学意义(均P<0.01).结论:鼓室导抗图峰压、宽度,中耳共振频率结合同侧镫骨肌反射对判断成人负压型鼓室导抗图的鼓室有无积液具有诊断价值.     

Prognostic factors for otitis media with effusion in infants

To determine the prognostic factors for otitis media with effusion (OME) in 1-year-old infants, we studied 240 patients and 366 controls in a case-cohort study. On univariate analysis factors which were associated with OME were family history, older siblings, upper respiratory infections and acute otitis media (AOM). After multivariate analysis, however, only the occurrence of more than four upper respiratory infections and children with older siblings were associated with OME. Thus, upper respiratory infections and older siblings appear to be related to the development of OME.     

A blinded in‐vitro study to compare the efficacy of five topical ear drops in clearing grommets blocked with thick middle ear effusion fluid1

Objective: To compare the efficacy of 5% NaHCO₃, 3% H₂O₂, Sofradex (dexamethasone sodium metasulphobenzoate 0.05%, framycetin sulphate 0.5%, gramicidin 0.005%), 0.33% acetic acid and 0.9% NaCl eardrops in clearing grommets blocked with harvested thick middle ear effusion fluid. Study design: A blinded in‐vitro study. Setting: District general hospital. Participants: A total of 473 grommets were blocked with freshly harvested unpooled thick middle ear effusion fluid obtained from 68 patients. Main outcome measures: Patency of the grommets before and 7 days after intervention was ascertained by tympanometry and close visual inspection. Results: Instillation of eardrops leads to a statistically significant increase in the clearance of grommets as compared with not using any drops (χ² = 14.3, d.f. = 5, P = 0.006). The numbers needed to treat were 2.8 for NaHCO₃, 3.2 for 0.9% NaCl, 3.9 for 0.33% acetic Acid, 4.4 for Sofradex and 9.5 for H₂O₂ eardrops. Pair‐wise comparison was only significant for comparison between 5% NaHCO₃ and 3% H₂O₂ eardrops (Bonferroni corrected P = 0.01, odds ratio = 4.3, CI = 1.9–9.9). Conclusions: Use of eardrops leads to a clinically and statistically significant increase in the clearance of blocked grommets. Of the five drops used, 5% NaHCO₃ was the most efficacious and 3% H₂O₂ the least efficacious. Limitations of this in‐vitro study are recognized and a prospective in‐vivo double blind randomized controlled trial is planned.     

Findings at initial surgery for childhood otitis media with effusion and subsequent outcome

The outcome of initial surgical treatment in children with otitis media with effusion (OME) was analysed in a prospective study involving 225 new patients. The presence or absence of effusion in each ear and type of effusion present were recorded at surgery. The outcome measure studied was resolution or recurrence of middle ear effusions necessitating further surgical intervention. The outcome was significantly more favourable in children with unilateral effusions at surgery as opposed to bilateral effusions (P> 0.03) but was unrelated to the type of effusion (serous or mucoid). Patients with unilateral effusions at surgery appear to have a fluctuating form of OME in which effusions are present in either or both ears at different times.     

分泌性中耳炎中耳积液血小板活化因子的测定

目的 :探讨血小板活化因子 (PAF)在分泌性中耳炎 (SOM)发生和转归中的作用。方法 :采用高效液相色谱法测定了 5 6例 (6 8耳 )SOM患者血浆和中耳积液 (MEE)中PAF的含量 ,并以 4 0例正常人血浆作为对照。结果 :SOM患者MEE中PAF浓度明显高于其血浆中的浓度 (P <0 .0 1) ,SOM患者血浆中PAF浓度明显高于对照组血浆中的浓度 (P <0 .0 5 ) ;黏液性中耳积液中的PAF浓度明显高于浆液性中耳积液中的浓度 (P <0 .0 1)。结论 :PAF是SOM中耳积液中的重要炎性递质 ,它与疾病的持续状态相关 ,可能在SOM的病因和发病机制中起着重要的作用     

P物质及组胺受体拮抗剂对分泌性中耳炎中耳积液的影响

采用免疫组化ＡＢＣ－ＧＤＮ及图象分析技术研究分泌性中耳炎中耳粘膜Ｐ物质含量的变化与中耳积液的关系，并观察ＳＰ受体拮抗剂ｓｐａｎｔｉｄｅ及组胺Ｈ２受体阻滞剂ｃｉｍｅ－ｔｉｄｉｎ对ＭＥＥ的影响，探讨ＳＰ在ＳＯＭ中的作用。结果发现，在ＳＯＭ条件下，中耳粘膜ＳＰ含量有逐渐增多趋势，并和ＭＥＥ量呈正相关。     

Quality of questionnaires for the assessment of otitis media with effusion in children

Objectives

Audiometric tests provide information about hearing in otitis media with effusion (OME). Questionnaires can supplement this information by supporting clinical history‐taking as well as potentially providing a standardized and comprehensive assessment of the impact of the disease on a child. There are many possible candidate questionnaires. This study aimed to assess the quality and usability of parent / child questionnaires in OME assessment.

Design and main outcome measures

Fifteen, published questionnaires, commonly used in audiological departments (Auditory Behaviour in Everyday Life (ABEL), Children's Auditory Performance Scale (CHAPS), Children's Home Inventory for Listening Difficulties (CHILD), Children's Outcome Worksheets (COW), Evaluation of Children's Listening and Processing Skills (ECLiPS), Early Listening Function (ELF), Fisher's Auditory Problem Checklist (FAPC), Hearing Loss 7 (HL‐7), Listening Inventory for Education‐ Revised (LIFE‐R Student), Listening Inventory for Education UK Individual Hearing Profile (LIFE‐UK IHP), LittlEARS Auditory Questionnaire (LittlEARS), Listening Situations Questionnaire (LSQ), Otitis Media 6 (OM‐6), Quality of Life in Children's Ear Problems (OMQ‐14), Parents’ Evaluation of Aural/Oral Performance of Children (PEACH) were assessed according to the following 8 criteria: conceptual clarity, respondent burden, reliability, validity, normative data, item bias, ceiling/ floor effects, and administrative burden.

Results

ECLiPS, LittlEARS and PEACH scored highest overall based on the assessment criteria established for this study. None of the questionnaires fully satisfied all 8 criteria. Although all questionnaires assessed issues considered to be of at least adequate relevance to OME, the majority had weaknesses with respect to the assessment of psychometric properties, such as item bias, floor/ceiling effects or measurement reliability and validity. Publications reporting on the evaluation of reliability, validity, normative data, item bias and ceiling/floor effects were not available for most of the questionnaires.

Conclusions

This formal evaluation of questionnaires, currently available to clinicians, highlights three questionnaires as potentially offering a useful adjunct in the assessment of OME in clinical or research settings. These were the ECLiPS, which is suitable for children aged 6 years and older, and either the LittlEARS or the PEACH for younger children. The latter two are narrowly focused on hearing, whereas ECLiPS has a broader focus on listening, language and social difficulties.