How many standard drinks are there in a glass of wine?

This small study investigates how much alcohol women consume when they have a glass of wine. Hotels in an inner city suburb of Melbourne were visited and their most commonly used wine glass was measured. Three major glass distributors and the Australian Hotels Association were asked about the size of commonly used wine glasses. Eighty-six women measured and recorded the amount of alcohol they drank in a 2-week prospective beverage diary. This study shows that, on average, wine glasses used in licensed premises such as hotels are larger than a standard drink. When at home participants, on average, drank more than a standard drink when consuming wine, champagne, spirits or liqueurs, but they drank less than a standard drink when drinking beer, cider and fortified wine. Wine drinkers, who are often women, cannot rely solely on counting their glasses of wine to keep them below the recommended number of standard drinks when in social situations, such as at hotels and private dwellings.     

Ethnic Origin,Beverage Preference,and Group Composition in Relation to Alcohol Consumption by Problem Drinkers

New Zealand problem drinkers of European, Maori, and Pacific Island origin did not differ in their mean alcohol consumption during a 2½-h free-drinking period in an experimental bar. Europeans had a smaller beer sip size, ingested more alcohol in the form of spirits, and were more likely to drink both beer and mixed drinks during the session than Polynesians. Dual beverage drinkers consumed more alcohol than did single beverage drinkers. Among drinkers of each ethnic category there was a positive relationship between alcohol consumption and ethnic representation in the drinking group. The results are discussed in the context of earlier baseline studies of drinking by alcoholics and normal drinkers, and observations of different ethnic groups drinking in the natural barroom environment.     

How much did you actually drink last night? An evaluation of standard drink labels as an aid to monitoring personal consumption

Background: Barriers exist for drinkers who wish to comply with low-risk guidelines when these are expressed in terms of numbers of “standard drinks” of alcohol. The increasing variability of container sizes and alcoholic strengths mean that percent alcohol by volume (%ABV) labels alone may be insufficient. Aims: To investigate whether standard drink (SD) labels would improve drinkers’ accuracy when estimating personal alcohol consumption. Setting: Private liquor stores near the University of Victoria, BC. Design: A 2?×?3?×?3 experimental design was employed with two labels (%ABV and SD), three beverages (beer, wine, and spirits) and three beverage strengths in balanced order. Subjects estimated the number of standard drinks that would be consumed in scenarios involving containers of their preferred beverages presented with different labels. Participants: A convenience sample of 301 liquor store patrons, aged 19 years and over. Measurements: Participants’ accuracy was determined by the relative and absolute percent errors in their estimations in comparison with correct answers. Results: Estimates were significantly more accurate with SD than %ABV labels in almost all the scenarios. Significantly more underestimation errors were made with %ABV labels. Mixed model regression analysis indicated younger respondents, beer drinkers and those with higher education made significantly fewer errors. Most (82.7%) supported SD labelling and believed SD labels would help them to comply with low-risk drinking guidelines (68.3%). Conclusions: The addition of clear SD labels helps consumers to make more accurate estimates of the SD content of their usual beverages than %ABV labels alone and would be more likely to help them comply with drinking guidelines.     

Gender comparison of alcohol exposure on drinking occasions

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to assess the influence of gender, age, drinking style and other selected demographic variables on the rate of alcohol beverage consumption on drinking days. The data were used to predict possible differences in ethanol exposure levels (peak blood alcohol concentration [BAC]) among the subgroups examined. METHOD: A representative sample (N = 2,627) of the U.S. adult population was surveyed using computer-assisted telephone interviewing to assess alcohol use (past 12 months) in quantity, frequency and type of beverage, as well as the time (minutes) usually required to consume the typical quantity of alcohol on drinking days. RESULTS: Of the 1,833 current drinkers (1,028 men, 805 women), women reported consuming a mean of 2.2 standard drinks (1 drink = 12 g ethanol) on typical drinking occasions (days); men reported consuming a mean of 3.2. The duration of the drinking episode was similar for women (122 minutes) and men (126 minutes). The hourly rate of drink consumption was thus lower for women (approximately 1.1 drinks/hour) than for men (approximately 1.6 drinks/hour). For both men and women, there was an age-related increase in the frequency of drinking but a decrease with age in predicted peak BACs and in the alcohol intake per drinking episode. Peak BACs achieved during typical drinking episodes were estimated to be quite similar for men (0.037) and for women (0.036) when prediction equations were based on equal rates of alcohol elimination in both genders. The estimated peak BACs were lower in women than in men when the prediction equation assumed a higher rate of ethanol elimination in women. CONCLUSIONS: Information on the rate of alcohol beverage consumption on drinking days facilitates prediction of BACs typically experienced in men and women of different demographic group memberships. The exposure values obtained will depend upon as yet unsettled norms for ethanol elimination rates in men and women.     

Estimates of the Absolute and Relative Strengths of Diverse Alcoholic Drinks by Young People

Background: Evidence suggests that college students are often unclear about how much alcohol is present in different drinks. Objectives: To evaluate the abilities of students to estimate the alcohol contents of drinks, both in relative and absolute terms, and to examine how alcohol strength informs behavior. Methods: For 10 popular drinks that varied by alcohol content, beverage and volume, 209 UK university students rank-ordered the drinks according to total alcohol content and then estimated, for each drink, the number of UK “units” of alcohol contained and its percentage alcohol-by-volume (% ABV). Participants also reported the importance of drink strength as a factor in drink choice, and its influence in different scenarios. Results: There was low but significant concordance between participants’ rank-orderings of drinks by strength, and the correlation of mean ranks with correct ranks was also significant. However, their explicit estimates of the numbers of “units” in the drinks, and their % ABV values, often diverged dramatically from actual values. Participants tended to overestimate the unit contents of spirit-based drinks but underestimated the unit contents of beers and wine; women were consistently less accurate than men, typically making greater underestimates for commonly-consumed drinks. Over one-third of the sample reported that strength influenced drink choice, but its importance ranked below flavor and cost; drink strength might contribute to drink choice depending on the drinking situation. Conclusion/Importance: Young drinkers (women especially) have a poor awareness of the alcohol contents of different drinks, particularly wines and beers, but they make better judgments of relative strength.     

Accuracy of photographs to capture respondent-defined drink size

OBJECTIVE: Evidence suggests that people misjudge the size of their drinks, calling into question the validity of data from surveys and screening instruments assessing alcohol quantity in terms of standard drinks. This article studied the validity of photographs of glasses to assess drink size. METHOD: In a U.S. national sample of 323 drinkers, respondents were mailed a measuring beaker and a set of photographs of wine, beer, and other drinking glasses for use in a subsequent telephone survey. In the interview, they were asked to pick the glass most similar to what they use at home and to identify the letter associated with their usual pour level. Then, a protocol where subjects measured the actual number of ounces in their typical drink, by pouring water into their usual glass and measuring this volume using the measuring beaker, gave a direct measure of home drink volume. We compared drink sizes using the two approaches. RESULTS: Photographs worked well for certain groups, including women, young people, and nonwhites (for wine) and whites (for beer). The greatest magnitude of error arising from the use of photographs was for wine drinks among those age 50 and older, those with a 4-year degree, frequent 5+ drinkers in general, and heavy-volume wine drinkers. Average drink size based on the most popular wine and beer glasses in the photographs were 0.62 oz (18 ml) and 1.62 oz (48 ml) larger than beaker pours, respectively. Error between actual drinks and photographs was especially high for a large balloon-shaped wine glass, chosen by only 3% of wine drinkers. CONCLUSIONS: Whenever possible, researchers and clinicians should incorporate protocols that allow for some type of direct measurement using the actual vessels from home. When this is not viable, photographs represent a solution that is practical, shows promise for beer and wine drinks, and is relevant to any drinking context.     

Beverage preference, beverage type and subject gender as determinants of alcohol consumption in the laboratory

Effects of beverage preference, beverage type and subject gender on ad libitum consumption of alcoholic beverages in the laboratory were evaluated. Undergraduate social drinkers (18 male, 18 female), with equal numbers of each gender stating a preference for beer, wine or mixed drinks, were selected. Subjects participated in three separate 30-minute ad lib drinking sessions and were presented with one of the three types of alcoholic beverage at each session. Data on total volume of beverage and of absolute ethanol consumed as well as blood alcohol concentration (BAC) attained were collected in each session. Subjects preferring wine or mixed drinks drank more alcohol and reached higher BACs when imbibing their beverage of choice than when drinking non-preferred beverages. Subjects preferring beer, however, showed no differences on these drinking measures as a function of beverage type. Men's reports of routine alcohol use had a high positive correlation with actual alcohol consumption observed in the laboratory, whereas for female subjects the correlation was near zero. Implications for interpretation of past ad lib drinking studies and the planning of future ones are discussed.     

Labelling alcoholic drinks: percentage proof,original gravity,percentage alcohol or standard drinks?

Drivers who wish to stay 'under the limit', problem drinkers wishing to control their drinking and literally anyone who drinks alcohol and is concerned about their health are all increasingly exhorted to monitor their alcohol intake by counting 'standard drinks' (each containing 8-14 g, depending on the country in question). Unfortunately, the evidence presented in this paper suggests that this system permits many errors. In particular, it requires two assumptions to be met: (1) that drinks of the same beverage type (i.e. beer, wine, fortified wine or spirits) normally contain the same percentage of alcohol by volume; and (2) that people serve, or are served, alcoholic drinks in standard serves. It is shown that in practice the strength of drinks available for sale of a given beverage type varies widely and that 'atypical' strengths form a significant proportion of alcohol sales. Furthermore, whether drinking occurs in a private residence or on licensed premises, it is usual for quantities greater than the supposed Australian standard of 10 g to be served. In practice, most people are unaware of the strengths of different beverages or the rough equivalences between them. Even if they are taught the standard drink system, they cannot make allowances for 'atypical' variations in strength. It is suggested these problems could be readily overcome if all alcohol containers were labelled in terms of standard drinks. The benefits of such a labelling system are discussed with regard to health promotion, accident prevention and the accuracy of surveys of alcohol use.     

Alcohol content variation in the assessment of alcohol consumption.

Most investigators have not adequately accounted for the alcohol content of different beverages when assessing alcohol consumption. Considerable research has assessed consumption in terms of the number of standard drinks. A problem with standard drink measures is that different distilled spirits, wines, and malt beverages vary considerably in alcohol content. State-to-state and brand-to-brand variations in the strength of different malt beverage brands are provided, as malt beverage alcohol contents are not contained on labels due to federal and state regulations. Ignoring alcohol content variation when estimating consumption can produce a large amount of error. Alcohol consumption should be assessed in terms of the number, size, and alcohol content of beverages.     

Beyond the "Binge" threshold: heavy drinking patterns and their association with alcohol involvement indices in college students

Despite its ubiquity, the term "Binge" drinking has been controversial. Among other things, the grouping of drinkers into a single risk category based on a relatively low threshold may not capture adequately the nature of problem drinking behaviors. The present study is an initial examination of the utility of delineating heavy drinkers into three groups; those who typically drink below the traditional "Binge" cutoff (less than 4+/5+ drinks per occasion for women/men), those who met traditional "Binge" drinking criteria, and a higher "Binge" cutoff of 6+/7+ (women, men). We examined differences in drunkenness, drinking frequency, and unique types of alcohol problems. Participants (N=356; 184 women) were regularly drinking college students at a mid-sized U.S. university who completed a battery of self-report measures including a calendar of daily alcohol consumption, and the 8-domain Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ). Estimated Blood Alcohol Levels (eBALs) were calculated. We found that the standard 4+/5+ drink "Binge" cutoff distinguishes drinkers across some but not all indices of alcohol involvement. "Binge" drinkers differed from their "Non-Binge" counterparts on eBAL, but for other indicators (drinking frequency, total alcohol consequences), only "Heavy Binge" drinkers differed significantly from "Non-Binge" drinkers. Importantly, "Heavy Binge" drinkers experienced higher levels of those specific consequences associated with more problematic alcohol involvement. Findings suggest that not all "Binge" drinkers drink alike, are equally drunk, or experience similar consequences. As such, there may be utility in distinguishing among heavy drinkers, in order to focus appropriately on those at greatest risk for different types of consequences.     

A Comparison of Alcohol Consumption Intentions Among Pregnant Drinkers and Their Nonpregnant Peers of Child-Bearing Age

Objective: To investigate alcohol consumption intentions among Australian women of childbearing age by pregnancy status. Methods: Three national online surveys were conducted with adult drinkers who consume an alcoholic beverage at least two days per month. Data from female respondents of childbearing age were analyzed according to pregnancy status: pregnant (n = 101), possibly pregnant (n = 178), and not pregnant (n = 1,957). Results: Pregnant drinkers were significantly more likely than possibly pregnant and nonpregnant drinkers of child-bearing age to report that they should and will reduce their alcohol consumption. Results showed that 33% of the pregnant women, 32% of the nonpregnant women, and 39% of the possibly pregnant women reported intending to drink five or more standard drinks on a single occasion in the following two weeks. Older pregnant women exhibited higher rates of heavy drinking intentions and lower intentions to reduce their consumption relative to younger pregnant women. Conclusion: Despite current alcohol consumption guidelines recommending abstinence while pregnant, pregnant respondents exhibited heavy episodic drinking intentions comparable to those of their nonpregnant peers. Implications: There is a need to increase public awareness of current alcohol guidelines for pregnant women. Older women of childbearing age and those planning a pregnancy may require particular attention.     

Pick your poison: stimuli selection in alcohol-related implicit measures

It is common for people to report strong preferences for certain types of alcohol, often as a function of past positive or negative experiences with particular types of drinks. Despite this individual difference, implicit measures related to alcohol frequently use nomothetic approaches--i.e., use a standard set of alcohol beverage stimuli--which may not match individuals' actual drinking behavior. Moreover, this mismatch may account for some of the inconsistencies across studies using implicit measures. The present study used an idiographic variant of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) in which participants (N=300) selected alcohol images that matched their drinking behavior (non-drinkers selected what they were offered most often). Results were consistent with previous research on alcohol preference: women selected more liquor and wine images, men selected more beer images; heavy episodic drinkers selected more beer and liquor images and selected fewer wine images than lighter drinkers and non-drinkers. In addition, IAT scores were sensitive to drinking levels in the expected direction and, importantly, were robust to stimuli selected. Thus, results provide initial validation of idiographic approaches to stimuli selection.     

Palatability,Familiarity, and Underage,Immoderate Drinking

Data gathered in a study of palatability (“liking”) and familiarity ratings of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages by 350 subjects from 12 to 30 years of age included the usual number of drinks consumed. Blind ratings of palatability and familiarity for the beverages were tested for association with immoderate drinking (more than four for males, two for females). Palatability ratings were combined in a principal components analysis to determine whether any component scores were related to such drinking. Liking for the spirits used in the ready-to-drink beverages was related to immoderate drinking in participants under 18 years of age, while liking for the ready-to-drink beverages themselves was not. Liking for beer was related to immoderate drinking in males under 18. The principal components analysis suggested that males who drank immoderately preferred pungent (bitter or acrid) beverages, while females who drank immoderately did not. The associations of palatability ratings with immoderate drinking were substantial and consistent with familiarity ratings, but were found among the least palatable beverages. The results are related to previous studies of beverage preference in underage, heavy drinkers. It is concluded that relative palatability is not an overriding factor in the choice of beverages among underage drinkers who drink beyond the recommended limits.     

Outlets,drinking and driving: a multilevel analysis of availability

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the degree to which the physical availability of alcohol as measured by outlet densities is related to self-reported individual drinking patterns, preferred drinking location, as well as both driving after drinking (DAD) and driving while intoxicated (DWI). METHOD: Data from 7,826 drinkers were obtained from a general-population telephone survey of 1,353 zip code areas in California. Measures of individual alcohol consumption included drinking frequency, drinks per occasion and variance in quantities consumed per occasion. Preferred drinking locations included bars, restaurants and the homes of drinkers and of their friends. DAD was defined as driving a motor vehicle within 4 hours of having one or more alcoholic drinks, and DWI was defined as driving after having too much to drink and drive safely. Geographic measures of outlet densities were obtained for bars, restaurants and off-premises establishments, using zip codes as geographic units of analysis. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to relate outlet densities within and surrounding respondents' area of residence to respondents' drinking and to respondents' drinking and driving. RESULTS: Whereas restaurant densities were directly related to greater drinking frequencies and DAD, bar densities were inversely related to DAD. There were no direct effects of drinking patterns on drinking and driving. Drinking and driving was strongly related to drinking location preference (e.g., bars and restaurants) only when considered simultaneously with individual drinking patterns, particularly drinking frequency. CONCLUSIONS: Increased restaurant density is strongly related to higher rates of both self-reported driving after drinking and drinking frequency. The strongest influence on both driving after drinking and driving while intoxicated is preferred drinking location considered together with individual drinking patterns. Outlet density and preferred drinking location when considered together with individual drinking patterns support driving after drinking and thereby increase the potential for alcohol-related accidents.     

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION PATTERN AMONG WOMEN IN A RURAL YORUBA COMMUNITY IN NIGERIA

Indigenous Nigerian societies discourage alcohol consumption among women, yet international trends show alcohol consumption increasing in populations of developing countries, especially among women. This research implemented in 1994, examined the pattern of alcohol consumption among women in the rural town of Igbo-Ora, located in the southwestern state of Oyo in Nigeria. A majority of the 300 respondents (64%) were found to have tasted alcoholic beverages, and over half of these reported current alcohol use. Current drinkers reported consuming an average of 1.3 bottles (60 cl per bottle) of alcoholic beverage in the week preceding the survey. Current drinking status was associated with religion. Only 9% of the respondents with indigenous beliefs reported using alcohol, compared to 40% of Christian and 30% of Moslem respondents. Those who never drank were, on average, 5 years older than current or previous drinkers. Single, separated, or divorced women were more likely to drink than married or widowed women. Special uses of alcohol for women were identified, including easing the pains of childbirth. Furthermore, the respondents identified problems associated with drinking alcohol that women confronted: accidents, fighting, illnesses, mental problems, children learning to drink, child neglect, rape, and tarnishing of one's image. With less than one-third of women reporting that they are current drinkers, and among those weekly consumption being low, one could say that there is little evidence of alcohol misuse among women in Igbo-Ora. At the same time, the fact that current drinkers are younger implies that consumption rates may increase in the future. This information about women's beliefs, practices, and preferences will be of value in designing health education programs to prevent future alcohol-associated problems. [Translations are provided in the International Abstracts Section of this issue.]     

Alcohol consumption pattern among women in a rural Yoruba community in Nigeria

Indigenous Nigerian societies discourage alcohol consumption among women, yet international trends show alcohol consumption increasing in populations of developing countries, especially among women. This research implemented in 1994, examined the pattern of alcohol consumption among women in the rural town of Igbo-Ora, located in the southwestern state of Oyo in Nigeria. A majority of the 300 respondents (64%) were found to have tasted alcoholic beverages, and over half of these reported current alcohol use. Current drinkers reported consuming an average of 1.3 bottles (60 cl per bottle) of alcoholic beverage in the week preceding the survey. Current drinking status was associated with religion. Only 9% of the respondents with indigenous beliefs reported using alcohol, compared to 40% of Christian and 30% of Moslem respondents. Those who never drank were, on average, 5 years older than current or previous drinkers. Single, separated, or divorced women were more likely to drink than married or widowed women. Special uses of alcohol for women were identified, including easing the pains of childbirth. Furthermore, the respondents identified problems associated with drinking alcohol that women confronted: accidents, fighting, illnesses, mental problems, children learning to drink, child neglect, rape, and tarnishing of one's image. With less than one-third of women reporting that they are current drinkers, and among those weekly consumption being low, one could say that there is little evidence of alcohol misuse among women in Igbo-Ora. At the same time, the fact that current drinkers are younger implies that consumption rates may increase in the future. This information about women's beliefs, practices, and preferences will be of value in designing health education programs to prevent future alcohol-associated problems.     

Acculturation and drinking among people of Mexican descent in Mexico and the United States

This article studies the relationships between acculturation and drinking and alcohol-related problems among people of Mexican descent in Mexico and the United States. Subjects in the United States were part of a national probability sample of the Hispanic household population 18 years of age and older. Subjects in Mexico were randomly selected from among adult residents of the city of Morelia and an adjoining rural county, Tarimbaro, both in the State of Michoacan. Both samples were interviewed using the same questionnaire. Response rates were 72% in the United States and 92% in Mexico. Results show that Mexican-American men drink more frequently than men in Michoacan, who, as a group, drink infrequently but consume more often five or more drinks at a sitting as compared with Mexican Americans. Mexican-American women have a lower rate of abstention and a higher rate of women who drink at least once a week and who consume five drinks at a sitting at least once a year than do women in Michoacan. Among men, changes in drinking seem to occur soon after coming to the United States--often within 5 years. Among women, drinking patterns are not related to length of residence in the United States. In spite of less drinking, respondents in Michoacan report more alcohol problems than do Mexican Americans.     

Alcoholic beverage preference as a public statement: self-concept and social image of college drinkers

Several studies have indicated that drinking-driving violation rates differ significantly across beverage preference groups. In an effort to assess beverage-specific alcohol expectancies, surveys of 120 college students probed self-concept, drinker stereotypes, beverage preference and quantity-frequency of alcohol consumption. The results revealed sharply differentiated social stereotypes for hypothetical drinkers of various alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages. Beverage preference groups differed little in self-concept except that men who preferred beer or mixed drinks rated themselves as more drunk than did men who preferred wine or nonalcoholic beverages. Combining all beverage preference groups, heavier drinkers rated themselves more positively and they rated male nondrinkers more negatively on most dimensions than did lighter drinkers. Support was found for some, but not all, extrapolations from consistency theory and enhancement theory in predicting beverage choice.     

The measurement of drinking patterns and alcohol problems in Nigeria

As in most other societies, alcoholic beverages have been consumed in what is present-day Nigeria for a long time. Before the arrival of western factory-made drinks, alcohol consumption was limited to a variety of beverages produced from palm trees and food grains. Today, beer has become the most popular drink in the country but traditional beverages (palm wine, burukutu, ogogoro, pito) are still widely consumed in both rural and urban areas. Though research has shown that heavy drinking seems to be the norm among those who drink any type of alcohol, there is no clear association between drinking and social or health problems. On the other hand, certain types of beverages are linked with positive attributes. Despite their potential significance, these and other issues have not received the attention they deserve in the alcohol research literature on Nigeria and other African countries. The focus of this paper is on the need to take into consideration relevant measurement issues (e.g., container and serving size, alcohol contents, drinking expectancies, perceived risks associated with the consumption of different types of alcoholic beverages, as well as reasons for drinking) in alcohol research. It is suggested that a better understanding of these and related factors is necessary for the advancement of alcohol epidemiology in the country.     

Drinking experiences in three populations of male drinkers

The first drinking experience has been suggested as an important point in etiological processes associated with alcohol use and abuse. In this study, initial drinking experiences were assessed among populations of alcoholics, problem drinkers, and non-problem drinkers. Results showed that the alcoholics and problem drinkers more frequently consumed 5 or more drinks during their initial drinking occasion than the nonproblem drinkers. Alcoholics were most likely to experience their second drinking event within several days. In addition, there was a tendency for alcoholics and problem drinkers to describe more negative effects associated with their initial drinking experience. No effects were found for age of first drink or its location. Such differences in first drinking may have implications for understanding the etiology of drinking problems.