The Challenges of Social Marketing of Organ Donation: News and Entertainment Coverage of Donation and Transplantation

While great strides have been made in persuading the public to become potential organ donors, actual behavior has not yet caught up with the nearly universally favorable attitudes the public expresses toward donation. This paper explores the issue by situating the social marketing of organ donation against a broader backdrop of entertainment and news media coverage of organ donation. Organ donation storylines are featured on broadcast television in medical and legal dramas, soap operas, and other television serials approximately four times per month (not including most cable networks), and feature storylines that promote myths and fears of the organ donation process. National news and other non-fictionalized coverage of organ donation are even more common, with stories appearing over twenty times a month on average. These stories tend to be one-dimensional and highly sensationalized in their coverage. The marketing of organ donation for entertainment essentially creates a counter-campaign to organ donation, with greater resources and reach than social marketers have access to. Understanding the broader environmental context of organ donation messages highlights the issues faced by social marketing campaigns in persuading the public to become potential donors.     

Youth and violence on local television news in California.

OBJECTIVES: This study explores how local television news structures the public and policy debate on youth violence. METHODS: A content analysis was performed on 214 hours of local television news from California. Each of the 1791 stories concerning youth, violence, or both was coded and analyzed for whether it included a public health perspective. RESULTS: There were five key findings. First, violence dominated local television news coverage. Second, the specifics of particular crimes dominated coverage of violence. Third, over half of the stories on youth involved violence, while more than two thirds of the violence stories concerned youth. Fourth, episodic coverage of violence was more than five times more frequent than thematic coverage, which included links to broader social factors. Finally, only one story had an explicit public health frame. CONCLUSIONS: Local television news provides extremely limited coverage of contributing etiological factors in stories on violence. If our nation's most popular source of news continues to report on violence primarily through crime stories isolated from their social context, the chance for widespread support for public health solutions to violence will be diminished.     

Health information sources of individuals with cancer and their family members

Researchers and practitioners who have sought to understand public reluctance to donating organs in spite of favorable attitudes toward organ donation have long thought that belief in myths about donation contribute to the problem. How these myths emerged and more important, why they have persisted in spite of national education campaigns is not clear. In the absence of direct personal experience with organ donation or transplantation, we believe that most people receive their information about donation through the media. In this study, we identify all entertainment television shows with organ donation storylines or subplots broadcast on ABC, NBC, CBS, and FOX from 2004-2005. Frame analysis reveals 2 competing metaframes: the moral corruption of the powerful and organ donors are good people. In addition to the metaframes, 4 secondary frames, and 6 tertiary frames are identified. Organ donation is framed in mostly negative terms, with a few notable exceptions. Recommendations for how to address negative framing of organ donation in the media are offered.     

Health Information Sources of Individuals With Cancer and Their Family Members

Researchers and practitioners who have sought to understand public reluctance to donating organs in spite of favorable attitudes toward organ donation have long thought that belief in myths about donation contribute to the problem. How these myths emerged and more important, why they have persisted in spite of national education campaigns is not clear. In the absence of direct personal experience with organ donation or transplantation, we believe that most people receive their information about donation through the media. In this study, we identify all entertainment television shows with organ donation storylines or subplots broadcast on ABC, NBC, CBS, and FOX from 2004–2005. Frame analysis reveals 2 competing metaframes: the moral corruption of the powerful and organ donors are good people. In addition to the metaframes, 4 secondary frames, and 6 tertiary frames are identified. Organ donation is framed in mostly negative terms, with a few notable exceptions. Recommendations for how to address negative framing of organ donation in the media are offered.     

Effects of entertainment (mis) education: exposure to entertainment television programs and organ donation intention

This study investigates antecedents and outcomes of entertainment television consumption in organ donation with the Orientation?-Stimulus-Orientation?-Response (O?-S-O? -R) model. It reveals that organ donation knowledge seems significantly related to recall of entertainment television programs and attitudes toward organ donation. Meanwhile, recall of entertainment television programs significantly predicts people's perception of medical mistrust, which in turn negatively predicts attitudes toward organ donation, while attitudes toward organ donation significantly predict behavioral intention in signing a donor card. It also suggests significant mediation relationships among the pre-orientation variable, stimulus, post-orientation variable, and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. This study provides an integrative theoretical framework to study media effects on organ donation and empirical evidence for "entertainment miseducation" (Morgan, Harrison, Chewning, Davis, & DiCorcia, 2007).     

How organ donation is represented in newspaper articles in the United States

A media agenda setting study was conducted to examine how newspaper stories frame the topic of organ and tissue donation. Seven hundred fifteen stories on organ and tissue donation from 20 newspapers dated 2002 or 2003 were content-analyzed for valence (i.e., positive, negative, or neutral toward organ donation) and topic (e.g., living donation, transplant process, celebrity donor/recipient). The 20 newspapers were chosen by circulation and electronic access of database. Four of the top 5 and 13 of the top 20 circulating newspapers were included and several combinations of search terms were used to identify relevant articles. Results indicate that the majority of articles were either positive (57%) or neutral (29%) regarding the topic of organ donation. The 4 most common topics covered in news articles included: (a) posttransplantation health and welfare, (b) information on the shortage of organ donors, (c) living donation, and (d) information about the transplantation process. Kidneys (n = 204) and hearts (n = 120) were the 2 most commonly mentioned organs in the sample of articles. Results are discussed and how news articles may shape laypersons' attitudes and intentions regarding organ donation is considered.     

News media coverage of U.S. Ebola policies: Implications for communication during future infectious disease threats

The Ebola outbreak of 2014–2015 raised concerns about the disease's potential spread in the U.S. and received significant news media coverage. Prior research has shown that news media coverage of policy options can influence public opinion regarding those policies, as well as public attitudes toward the broader social issues and target populations addressed by such policies. To assess news media coverage of Ebola policies, the content of U.S.-focused news stories (n = 1262) published between July 1 and November 30, 2014 from 12 news sources was analyzed for 13 policy-related messages. Eight-two percent of news stories mentioned one or more policy-related messages. The most frequently appearing policy-related messages overall were those about isolation (47%) and quarantine (40%). The least frequently mentioned policy-related message described dividing potentially exposed persons into distinct groups based on their level of Ebola risk in order to set different levels of restrictions (5%). Message frequency differed depending on whether news sources were located in an area that experienced an Ebola case or controversy, by news sources' political ideological perspective, and by type of news source (print and television). All policy-related messages showed significant increases in frequency after the first case of Ebola was diagnosed in the U.S. on September 30, 2014, with the exception of messages related to isolation, which showed a significant decrease. Results offer insight into how the news media covers policies to manage emerging disease threats.     

Promoting organ donation to Hispanics: the role of the media and medicine

This study assesses the impact of a paid media advertising campaign employing Spanish language, culturally sensitive television and radio spots airing on major Hispanic stations in southern California. An advertising tracking study with a baseline and three postintervention telephone surveys was conducted from 2001 through 2003 among 500 randomly selected self-identified, primarily Spanish language dominant adult Hispanics. Measures of organ donation attitudes and behaviors (decision and declared intent to donate organs) improved significantly (P < .05) in 2001 and 2002, then leveled off or declined in 2003. Among the reasons given for not making a decision to donate was fear that medical personnel might withhold care from identified organ donors, suggesting lack of knowledge and distrust of the health care system. Few respondents talked to health care professionals or contacted the organ procurement agency for information either before or after the campaign. Findings from this study indicate a need for ongoing public education in the Hispanic community about organ transplantation and donation. Health professionals need to become more engaged in encouraging Hispanic patients to learn about organ transplantation and donation, and to inform their families that they have made the personal decision to donate.     

A Content Analysis of Organ Donation Stories Printed in U.S. Newspapers: Application of Newsworthiness

The current study applied a theory of newsworthiness to the topic of organ donation. Specifically, content analysis of newspaper stories published in the United States (N = 1,988) was performed to identify whether deviance and significance of a story predicted story prominence, measured as story length and placement in the newspaper. Results indicated support for study hypotheses: Longer stories and front-page stories pertaining to organ donation were more deviant and more significant in content. Analyses also indicated stories more negative in nature were more likely given front-page coverage, represented international events, and were high on deviance and significance. Higher circulating newspapers were more likely to publish stories recounting negative events in organ donation. Results indicated organ donation coverage represents a valid application of newsworthiness theory, and implications of study findings are discussed in relation to the agenda-setting function of news stories.     

Marketing organ donation around the globe.

Marketing to potential organ donors in different countries requires knowledge about religious beliefs and cultural norms that might influence the decision to donate. Because beliefs vary so widely from country to country, marketers need to consider whether a standardized or adaptive approach is suitable for marketing organ donation in different countries. This article takes a look at the variables that influence the decision to donate an organ and suggests marketing strategies that may work in various parts of the world.     

Organ donation and transplantation: ethnic differences in knowledge and opinions among urban high school students

Purpose : To assess knowledge and opinions about the process of human organ donation and transplantation among American teenagers. Methods : A culturally sensitive 35-item self-administered survey assessing knowledge, opinions, and family discussion about organ donation and transplantation was conducted with 247 students in 13 separate classrooms encompassing three urban high schools in the same city. Results : More than 50% of the students did not know the correct answers to 13 of the 16 questions on factual knowledge. The sources of information about organ donation and transplantation among students were primarily television and school. African-Americans and Asian-Americans were significantly less likely to want to become organ donors when compared to non-African-Americans and non-Asian-Americans, respectively. Asian-Americans were significantly less likely to have discussed the matter with family members. Conclusions : Accurate, up-to-date, culturally sensitive youth-oriented health education that emphasizes family discussions about organ donation and transplantation is needed.     

Health content in local television news

Local television news is an important source of health information for the public. Yet little is known about coverage of health issues on local television newscasts. This study examined 1,863 news stories that aired on 4 English-language channels and 1 Spanish channel in 7 U.S. markets during a composite week in 2000. About 10% of news stories focused on health topics. Specific illnesses/diseases and healthy living issues received the most frequent coverage. Health news stories generally were less than 1 min long. Most health news stories were neutral in tone. Few offered contrasting viewpoints or follow-up information. Many stories were likely to require a 10th grade education to be understood. Implications for health professionals, policy makers, and health communication researchers are discussed.     

Health Content in Local Television News

Local television news is an important source of health information for the public. Yet little is known about coverage of health issues on local television newscasts. This study examined 1,863 news stories that aired on 4 English-language channels and 1 Spanish channel in 7 U.S. markets during a composite week in 2000. About 10% of news stories focused on health topics. Specific illnesses/diseases and healthy living issues received the most frequent coverage. Health news stories generally were less than 1 min long. Most health news stories were neutral in tone. Few offered contrasting viewpoints or follow-up information. Many stories were likely to require a 10th grade education to be understood. Implications for health professionals, policy makers, and health communication researchers are discussed.     

A 15-Year Review of ABC,CBS, and NBC News Coverage of Organ Donation: Implications for Organ Donation Campaigns

This content analysis represents news coverage of organ donation from January 1990 to December 2005. Specifically, ABC, CBS, and NBC news broadcasts were examined to gain a greater understanding of organ donation coverage on TV. Overall this investigation revealed that organ donation received modest coverage (N = 1,507). Although the majority of coverage was positive, attention to the need for organs and the process of becoming a potential organ donor received modest exposure. In addition, non–living donor and living-donor donations received approximately equal coverage. Results are discussed with a focus on message design for practitioners and advocates of organ donation.     

The emerging public discourse on state legalization of marijuana for recreational use in the US: Analysis of news media coverage, 2010–2014

ObjectivesUS states have begun to legalize marijuana for recreational use. In the absence of clear scientific evidence regarding the likely public health consequences of legalization, it is important to understand how the risks and benefits of this policy are being discussed in the national dialogue. To assess the public discourse on recreational marijuana policy, we assessed the volume and content of US news media coverage of the topic.MethodWe analyzed the content of a 20% random sample of news stories published/aired in high circulation/viewership print, television, and Internet news sources from 2010 to 2014 (N = 610).ResultsNews media coverage of recreational marijuana policy was heavily concentrated in news outlets from the four states (AK, CO, OR, WA) and DC that legalized marijuana for recreational use during the study period. Overall, 53% of news stories mentioned pro-legalization arguments and 47% mentioned anti-legalization arguments. The most frequent pro-legalization arguments posited that legalization would reduce criminal justice involvement/costs (20% of news stories) and increase tax revenue (19%). Anti-legalization arguments centered on adverse public health consequences, such as detriments to youth health and well-being (22%) and marijuana-impaired driving (6%). Some evidence-informed public health regulatory options, like marketing and packaging restrictions, were mentioned in 5% of news stories or fewer.ConclusionAs additional states continue to debate legalization of marijuana for recreational use, it is critical for the public health community to develop communication strategies that accurately convey the rapidly evolving research evidence regarding recreational marijuana policy.     

How Organ Donation Is Represented in Newspaper Articles in the United States

A media agenda setting study was conducted to examine how newspaper stories frame the topic of organ and tissue donation. Seven hundred fifteen stories on organ and tissue donation from 20 newspapers dated 2002 or 2003 were content-analyzed for valence (i.e., positive, negative, or neutral toward organ donation) and topic (e.g., living donation, transplant process, celebrity donor/recipient). The 20 newspapers were chosen by circulation and electronic access of database. Four of the top 5 and 13 of the top 20 circulating newspapers were included and several combinations of search terms were used to identify relevant articles. Results indicate that the majority of articles were either positive (57%) or neutral (29%) regarding the topic of organ donation. The 4 most common topics covered in news articles included: (a) posttransplantation health and welfare, (b) information on the shortage of organ donors, (c) living donation, and (d) information about the transplantation process. Kidneys (n?=?204) and hearts (n?=?120) were the 2 most commonly mentioned organs in the sample of articles. Results are discussed and how news articles may shape laypersons' attitudes and intentions regarding organ donation is considered.     

Social influence of a religious hero: the late Cardinal Stephen Kim Sou-hwan's effect on cornea donation and volunteerism

This study examined the mediated influence of a celebrated religious hero in South Korea, Cardinal Stephen Kim, through two forms of involvement--parasocial interaction and identification--on intention toward cornea donation and volunteerism, and it investigated how the news media diffused of his death. A structural equation modeling analysis with a Web-based voluntary survey of more than 1,200 people in South Korea revealed a multistep social influence process, beginning with parasocial interaction with Cardinal Kim, leading to identification with him, which predicted intention toward cornea donation and volunteerism. Additional investigations found that news of Cardinal Kim's death diffused rapidly through media and interpersonal communication. Results of this study demonstrate that religious leaders who achieve a celebrity hero status can prompt public discussion of important issues rather quickly through extensive media coverage, enabling them to promote prosocial behavior and positively affect public health.     

Problematising the ethics of organ donation after circulatory death in the UK

This commentary addresses the ethics of controlled organ donation after circulatory death (DCD) in the UK, a practice which has recently been revived as part of attempts to increase rates of organ donation. Despite being linked to growth in donor rates, bioethics and clinical scholars have drawn attention to the ethical issues which DCD poses for health professionals, particularly around the requirement to alter the end-of-life care of potential donors. In this commentary, the UK policy response to the ethics of DCD is examined by drawing on Foucault’s problematisation approach. This analyses the broader contexts within which the policy version of ethics for DCD has been created, and examines the potential implications of this form of ethics for the work of health professionals. It is argued that the policy version of ethics for DCD has a specific normalising role, which acts as an integral part of the efficiency drive by transplant medicine to optimise the potential for donation. In turn, this form of ethics is premised upon providing the right tools for health professionals to make ethical decisions around DCD. In so doing, it fails to account for the everyday practices of health professionals involved in end-of-life care. In conclusion, the commentary advocates bringing the social science perspective into debates on DCD, to ensure that the terms and practice of this technology, and its policies, are adequately problematised.