Acute Lower Respiratory Infection in Childhood and Household Fuel Use in Bhaktapur,Nepal

Background: Globally, solid fuels are used by about 3 billion people for cooking. These fuels have been associated with many health effects, including acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) in young children. Nepal has a high prevalence of use of biomass for cooking and heating.Objective: This case–control study was conducted among a population in the Bhaktapur municipality, Nepal, to investigate the relationship of cookfuel type to ALRI in young children.Methods: Cases with ALRI and age-matched controls were enrolled from an open cohort of children 2–35 months old, under active monthly surveillance for ALRI. A questionnaire was used to obtain information on family characteristics, including household cooking and heating appliances and fuels. The main analysis was carried out using conditional logistic regression. Population-attributable fractions (PAF) for stove types were calculated.Results: A total of 917 children (452 cases and 465 controls) were recruited into the study. Relative to use of electricity for cooking, ALRI was increased in association with any use of biomass stoves [odds ratio (OR) = 1.93; 95% CI: 1.24, 2.98], kerosene stoves (OR = 1.87; 95% CI: 1.24, 2.83), and gas stoves (OR = 1.62; 95% CI: 1.05, 2.50). Use of wood, kerosene, or coal heating was also associated with ALRI (OR = 1.45; 95% CI: 0.97, 2.14), compared with no heating or electricity or gas heating. PAFs for ALRI were 18.0% (95% CI: 8.1, 26.9%) and 18.7% (95% CI: 8.4%–27.8%), for biomass and kerosene stoves, respectively.Conclusions: The study supports previous reports indicating that use of biomass as a household fuel is a risk factor for ALRI, and provides new evidence that use of kerosene for cooking may also be a risk factor for ALRI in young children.     

Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency with severe acute lower respiratory infection in Indian children under 5 y

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether subclinical vitamin D deficiency in Indian children under 5 y of age is a risk factor for severe acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI). DESIGN: A hospital-based case-control study. SETTING: Sanjeevani Paediatrics Hospital, a private hospital in Indapur, India. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 150 children including 80 cases and 70 controls, aged 2-60 months, were enrolled. Case definition of severe ALRI as given by the World Health Organization was used for cases. Controls were healthy children attending outpatients' service for immunization. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Association of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD3) with severe ALRI, controlling for demographic and other potential risk factors. RESULTS: Serum 25OHD3 increased with age. Factors significantly associated with decreased risk of severe ALRI in univariate analysis were: exclusive breastfeeding in the first 4 months (cases 35/78 (45%), controls 41/64 (64%); P=0.02); introduction of other dietary liquids than milk only after 6 months (cases 46/70 (66%), controls 31/66 (47%); P=0.03); use of liquid petroleum cooking fuel (cases 32/80 (40%), controls 40/70 (57%); P=0.04); infant not covered in swaddling cloths when exposed to sunlight before crawling (cases 11/52 (21%), controls 25/54 (46%); P=0.006); and serum 25OHD3>22.5 nmol/l (cases 16/80 (20%), controls 48/70 (69%); P<0.001). In multivariate analysis, factors associated with significantly lower odds ratio for having severe ALRI were: serum 25OHD3>22.5 nmol/l (OR: 0.09; 95% CI 0.03-0.24; P<0.001) and exclusive breastfeeding in the first 4 months of life (OR 0.42; 95% CI 0.18-0.99; P=0.046) with age and height/age as significant covariates. CONCLUSION: Subclinical vitamin D deficiency and nonexclusive breastfeeding in the first 4 months of life were significant risk factors for severe ALRI in Indian children.     

苏州市5岁以下儿童呼吸道合胞病毒感染的临床特征和影响因素

目的  分析呼吸道合胞病毒(respiratory syncytial virus, RSV)感染住院儿童的临床特征,探究其影响因素。方法  通过医院信息系统筛选2010-2014年期间于苏州大学附属儿童医院住院的5岁以下急性下呼吸道感染(acute lower respiratory infection, ALRI)病例,从病历中收集ALRI住院病例的临床诊治、生化检测资料,通过实验室检测信息系统获取其RSV检测结果。比较RSV阳性和阴性ALRI病例的临床特点,采用非条件Logistic回归分析模型分析RSV感染的影响因素。结果  19 257名ALRI病例中,4 096例RSV检测结果阳性,阳性率为21.3%。RSV阳性ALRI患儿的常见症状为咳嗽(99.4%)、咽痛/咽红(98.3%)、喘息(60.9%)。与RSV阴性患儿相比,RSV阳性患儿喘息、气促发生率均较高(均有P＜0.001),发热率低(χ² =280.8,P＜0.001)。低年龄是RSV感染的独立危险因素,与24~＜60月龄儿童相比,1~＜6月龄、6~＜12月龄、12~＜24月龄儿童感染RSV的调整比值比分别为4.00(95% CI: 3.57~4.48)、2.60(95% CI: 2.30~2.94)、1.82(95% CI: 1.59~2.07)。结论  RSV感染患儿喘息、气促的发生率较高;低年龄是RSV感染的独立危险因素,年龄越小,感染RSV的风险越高。     

An epidemiological study of RSV infection in the Gambia

OBJECTIVE: To describe the epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in a developing country. METHODS: The work was carried out in three hospitals for primary cases and in the community for secondary cases in the western region of the Gambia, West Africa. RSV infection was diagnosed by immunofluorescence of nasopharyngeal aspirate samples in children younger than two years admitted to hospital with acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI). Routine records of all children with ALRI were analysed, and the incidence rates of ALRI, severe RSV-associated respiratory illness and hypoxaemic RSV infections were compared. A community-based study was undertaken to identify secondary cases and to obtain information about spread of the virus. FINDINGS: 4799 children with ALRI who were younger than two years and lived in the study area were admitted to the study hospitals: 421 had severe RSV-associated respiratory illness; 55 of these were hypoxaemic. Between 1994 and 1996, the observed incidence rate for ALRI in 100 children younger than one year living close to hospital was 9.6 cases per year; for severe RSV-associated respiratory illness 0.83; and for hypoxaemic RSV-associated respiratory illness 0.089. The proportion of all ALRI admissions due to RSV was 19%. Overall, 41% of children younger than five years in compounds in which cases lived and 42% in control compounds had evidence of RSV infection during the surveillance period. CONCLUSION: RSV is an important cause of ALRI leading to hospital admission in the Gambia. Morbidity is considerable and efforts at prevention are worthwhile.     

A case-control study of risk factors for asthma in New Zealand children

OBJECTIVE: As in other English-speaking countries, asthma is a major and increasing health problem in New Zealand. This study examined the risk factors for asthma in children aged 7-9. METHODS: Cases and controls were randomly selected from participants in the Wellington arm of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC). Cases were children with a previous diagnosis of asthma and current medication use (n=233), and controls were children with no history of wheezing and no diagnosis of asthma (n=241). RESULTS: After controlling for confounders, factors significantly associated with asthma were maternal (OR=3.36, 95% CI 1.88-5.99) and paternal asthma (OR-2.67, 95% CI 1.42-5.02), and male sex (OR=1.81, 95% CI 1.17-2.81). Children from social classes 5 and 6 or with unemployed parents (OR=2.32, 95% CI 1.22-4.44) were significantly more likely to have asthma than children in social classes 1 and 2. There was no significant association between having polio vaccination (OR=2.48, 95% CI 0.83-7.41), hepatitis B vaccination (OR=0.66, 95% CI 0.42-1.04) or measles/mumps/rubella vaccination (OR=1.43, 95% CI 0.85-2.41) and asthma. CONCLUSIONS: This study has confirmed the associations of family history and lower socio-economic status with current asthma in 7-9 year old children. The role of vaccinations requires further research.     

Measles vaccine effectiveness and risk factors for measles in Dhaka,Bangladesh

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate vaccine effectiveness and to assess risk factors for measles in Dhaka, Bangladesh. METHOD: A case-control study, involving 198 cases with 783 age-matched neighbourhood controls and 120 measles cases with 365 age-matched hospital controls, was conducted in 1995-96 in three large hospitals in Dhaka. FINDINGS: Measles vaccine effectiveness was estimated at 80% (95% confidence interval (CI) = 60-90%) using neighbourhood controls; very similar results were obtained using hospital controls. Visits to a health facility 7-21 days before onset of any symptoms were associated with increased risk of measles compared with neighbourhood (adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 7.0, 95% CI = 4.2-11.6) or hospital (adjusted OR = 1.7, 95% CI = 1.01-2.8) controls. Cases were more likely than controls to come from a household where more than one child lived (adjusted OR = 1.6, 95% CI = 1.1-2.5 versus neighbourhood controls; adjusted OR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.02-3.0 versus hospital controls). CONCLUSIONS: To improve measles control in urban Dhaka missed immunization opportunities must be reduced in all health care facilities by following WHO guidelines. For measles elimination, more than one dose of vaccine would be required.     

Cholera in metropolitan Manila: foodborne transmission via street vendors.

Reported are the results of an unmatched case-control study to determine the risk factors associated with acquisition of cholera in Manila. Cases were patients admitted to the San Lazaro Hospital between July and September 1989 and whose stools yielded Vibrio cholerae O1 on culture. Controls were patients admitted to the same hospital and who had no history of diarrhoea or of having taken antibiotics during the 3 days prior to admission. Of the 158 cases and 158 controls who had bought food from street vendors, cases were more likely to have bought the following items: pansit (rice noodles with shrimp, meat, and vegetables), mussel soup, spaghetti, fish balls, pig blood coagulated with vinegar, and salty brine shrimp with vegetables. Cases were also more likely to lack piped water at home. An unconditional logistic regression analysis indicated that only pansit (OR = 2.15, 95% CI = 1.32-3.51), mussel soup (OR = 2.29, 95% CI = 1.06-4.95), and the absence of piped water at home (OR = 2.70, 95% CI = 1.63-4.46) remained as risk factors. As control measures we recommend stricter implementation of the food sanitation code and the licensing of street food vendors.     

Risk factors for pneumonia in infants and young children and the role of solid fuel for cooking: a case-control study

We evaluated the risk factors for childhood pneumonia with particular reference to indoor air-pollution associated with solid fuel use for cooking (e.g. coal, wood, dung), using a case-control study in a children's hospital in Calcutta. Cases were 127 children aged 2-35 months of either sex admitted with pneumonia and controls were 135 children attending their immunization clinic. Solid fuel use (odds ratio = 3.97, CI = 2.00-7.88), history of asthma in the child (OR = 5.49, CI = 2.37-12.74), poor economic status indicator (OR = 4.95, CI = 2.38 to 10.28), keeping large animals (OR = 6.03, CI = 1.13-32.27) were associated with high risk of pneumonia after adjusting for confounding (logistic regression analysis). Nearly 80% of people in India use such smoke producing fuel and the population attributable risk would be very high. This finding has important health policy implications. Furthermore, history of asthma is a useful prognostic indicator for early action for prevention of severe pneumonia.     

Risk factors for typhoid fever in the Mekong delta, southern Viet Nam: a case-control study

In order to identify risk factors for typhoid fever in a highly endemic area, we undertook a case-control study in the Mekong delta, Viet Nam. Cases were 144 consecutive patients admitted to hospital with blood culture-confirmed typhoid fever. Two controls (1 in the hospital and 1 in the community) were chosen for each case. Standardized interviews were conducted with questions regarding recent contact with a typhoid fever patient, eating habits, hygiene and socio-economic level. Cases were more likely to have been in contact with a patient with typhoid fever than hospital controls (adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 5.2, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.7-15.9) or community controls (adjusted OR = 11.9, 95% CI 2.3-60.7); 11% and 14% of typhoid fever cases (compared to hospital or community controls, respectively) were attributable to recent contact with a patient with this disease. These findings suggest that strategies directed towards the persons in contact with a patient might reduce the incidence of secondary cases of typhoid fever.     

Risk factors for the occurrence of sporadic Salmonella enterica serotype enteritidis infections in children in France: a national case-control study

To determine risk factors associated with the occurrence of sporadic cases of Salmonella enteritidis infections among children in France, we conducted a matched case-control study. Cases were identified between 1 March and 30 September 1995. One hundred and five pairs of cases and controls matched for age and place of residence were interviewed. In the 1-5 years age group, illness was associated with the consumption of raw eggs or undercooked egg-containing foods (OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.2-4.8). Storing eggs more than 2 weeks after purchase was associated with Salmonella enteritidis infection (OR 3.8, 95% CI 1.4-10.2), particularly during the summer period (OR 6.0, 95% CI 1.3-26.8). Cases were more likely to report a case of diarrhoea in the household 10-3 days before the onset of symptoms, particularly in the age group < or = 1 year (P = 0.01). This study confirms the link between eggs and the occurrence of sporadic cases of Salmonella enteritidis among children, highlights the potential role of prolonged egg storage and underlines the role of person-to-person transmission in infants.     

Long-term morbidity and mortality following hypoxaemic lower respiratory tract infection in Gambian children

Acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) are the main cause of death in young children worldwide. We report here the results of a study to determine the long-term survival of children admitted to hospital with severe pneumonia. The study was conducted on 190 Gambian children admitted to hospital in 1992-94 for ALRI who survived to discharge. Of these, 83 children were hypoxaemic and were treated with oxygen, and 107 were not. On follow-up in 1996-97, 62% were traced. Of the children with hypoxaemia, 8 had died, compared with 4 of those without. The mortality rates were 4.8 and, 2.2 deaths per 100 child-years of follow-up for hypoxaemic and non-hypoxaemic children, respectively (P = 0.2). Mortality was higher for children who had been malnourished (Z-score < -2) when seen in hospital (rate ratio = 3.2; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.03-10.29; P = 0.045). Children with younger siblings experienced less frequent subsequent respiratory infections (rate ratio for further hospitalization with respiratory illness = 0.15; 95% CI = 0.04-0.50; P = 0.002). Children in Gambia who survive hospital admission with hypoxaemic pneumonia have a good prognosis. Survival depends more on nutritional status than on having been hypoxaemic. Investment in oxygen therapy appears justified, and efforts should be made to improve nutrition in malnourished children with pneumonia.     

Risk factors for Salmonella Enteritidis and Typhimurium (DT104 and non-DT104) infections in The Netherlands: predominant roles for raw eggs in Enteritidis and sandboxes in Typhimurium infections

Since 1996 Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 salmonellosis has increased in The Netherlands. This prompted a case-control study of risk factors for salmonellosis to inform transmission routes for this phage type. Cases were laboratory-confirmed patients with a Salmonella infection and controls were selected from population registries by frequency matching for age, sex, degree of urbanization and season. Cases and controls received a questionnaire on risk factors. Of the 1171 cases, 573 (49%) responded: 245 S. Enteritidis and 232 S. Typhimurium cases (both DT104 and non-DT104), of which 58 were DT104. Of the 10250 controls, 3409 (33%) responded. Use of H2 antagonists [odds ratio (OR) 4.4, 95% CI 1.6-12.2] and proton pump inhibitors (OR 4.2, 95% CI 2.2-7.9), consumption of raw eggs (OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.3-7.4) and products containing raw eggs (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.1-3.0) were associated with endemic S. Enteritidis infection. Risk factors for endemic S. Typhimurium infection were use of proton pump inhibitors (OR 8.3, 95% CI 4.3-15.9), occupational exposure to raw meat (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.1-7.9), playing in a sandbox (for children aged 4-12 years) (OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.6-3.7), consumption of undercooked meat (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.1-4.1) and use of antibiotics (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.0-3.4). Use of proton pump inhibitors (OR 11.2, 95% CI 3.9-31.9) and playing in a sandbox (OR 4.4, 95% CI 1.8-10.7) were the only risk factors for S. Typhimurium DT104 salmonellosis. This study confirms known risk factors for salmonellosis. However, playing in a sandbox was a predominant new risk factor for S. Typhimurium salmonellosis in children [population attributable risk (PAR) 14%], and especially for S. Typhimurium DT104 (PAR 32%).     

婴儿呼吸道合胞病毒急性下呼吸道感染的相关因素分析

目的：探究影响婴儿呼吸道合胞病毒急性下呼吸道感染的相关因素。方法选取2013年7月至2014年7月于浙江省金华市浦江县人民医院住院的急性下呼吸道感染（ ALRI）患儿1540例，根据浙江省金华市浦江县人民医院呼吸道合胞病毒（RSV）检测结果，将患儿分为RSV阳性组（n＝816）和RSV阴性组（n＝724）两组，对比两组患者的性别、年龄、出生体重、胎龄、发病季节、合并基础疾病、合并先心病、居住人口、家庭月收入、母乳喂养、家庭吸烟、妊娠合并糖尿病、妊娠合并高血压、孕母特应性疾病等。结果多因素分析发现，秋冬季节发病（OR＝1．579，95％CI＝1．172～2．127）、合并先心病（OR＝1．317，95％CI＝1．028～1．685）、孕母特应性疾病（OR＝1．802，95％CI＝1．235～2．631）是婴儿RSV相关ALRI的危险因素，而家庭月收入≥10千元（OR＝0．679，95％CI＝0．499～0．924）是其保护因素。结论秋冬季节发病、合并先心病、孕母特应性疾病的婴儿RSV相关ALRI发病率高，而家庭月收入≥10千元的家庭RSV相关ALRI发病率低。     

某医院神经内科重症患者医院感染的发生情况及影响因素分析

目的 了解某医院神经内科重症患者医院感染的发生情况,并分析医院感染的影响因素。方法 选择247例神经内科重症患者作为研究对象,根据是否发生医院感染分为医院感染组和非医院感染组,通过回顾性调查和实验室检查,采用logistic回归分析确定神经内科重症患者医院感染发生的影响因素。结果 某医院所有研究对象中,共计43例重症患者发生医院感染,感染率为17.41%,感染部位以呼吸系统（24例,占比55.82%）和泌尿系统（13例,占比30.23%）为主。Logistic回归分析结果发现神经内科重症患者医院感染的独立危险因素包括年龄≥60岁（OR=2.056,95%CI:1.056～4.004）、有意识障碍（OR=3.025,95%CI:1.202～7.615）、使用呼吸机（OR=1.476,95%CI:1.031～2.112）、住院时间≥2周（OR=1.754,95%CI:1.057～2.883）、TP<70g/L（OR=2.469,95%CI:1.132～5.387）和ALB<25g/L（OR=2.312,95%CI:1.130～4.728）（OR=2.312,95%CI:1.130～4.728）（P均<0.05）。结论 某医院神经内科重症患者医院感染的发生率较高,以呼吸系统和泌尿系统感染为主,年龄≥60岁、有意识障碍、使用呼吸机、住院时间≥2周、TP和ALB指标偏低常是独立危险因素。     

February asthma outbreaks in NSW: a case control study

OBJECTIVES: To investigate individual factors associated with an asthma outbreak among children aged one to 14 years in Sydney in February 1999. METHODS: A case control study was undertaken with cases (n=92) defined as all children admitted to Sydney Children's Hospital for asthma in February 1999. Unmatched controls (n=76) were all children admitted for asthma in the previous three months. We obtained information by a structured telephone survey of parents. Logistic regression analyses were used to determine odds ratios for risk factors for hospital admission. RESULTS: Mean age for hospital admission of 4.7 years for cases and 4.4 years for controls. The presence of one or more siblings reduced the risk of admission during an asthma outbreak (OR=0.59, 95% CI 0.37 to 0.93). Children with older siblings aged 10 to 14 years were also less likely to be admitted (OR=0.3, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.74). An age effect was observed. Other demographic, clinical and environmental characteristics, including smoking, were not associated with admission during the outbreak. CONCLUSIONS: The main findings of this study are the protective effect of siblings and an age-dependent effect in risk of hospital admission during an asthma outbreak. These findings are consistent with an infective cause of the outbreak. IMPLICATIONS: Children without siblings, particularly older siblings, appear to be at highest risk of hospital admission during an asthma outbreak. Environmental and other factors need to be examined to further explain the episodicity of such outbreaks and to determine means of predicting and preventing future episodes.     

Desquamative inflammatory vaginitis: an exploratory case-control study

PURPOSE: To investigate potential risk factors for desquamative inflammatory vaginitis (DIV), a rare but severe form of vaginitis. We are aware of no other controlled studies of DIV. METHODS: We conducted a case control study comparing DIV cases (n = 47), identified from the Wayne State University Vaginitis Clinic, to friend controls. For some variables, cases were also compared to 1432 women participating in a random digit dialing survey. RESULTS: Most cases reported that their last episode of DIV caused at least some pain (76.9%) and worry (73.1%). Cases were more likely than either friend or population controls to report (ORs from population controls) a history of vulvovaginal candidiasis (OR = 4.40, 95% CI 2.24, 8.65), bacterial vaginosis (OR = 25.58, 95% CI 15.91, 41.15), or pelvic inflammatory disease (OR = 16.90, 95% CI 8.26, 34.55); use of oral contraceptives (OR = 4.91, 95% CI 2.11, 11.43); use of hormone replacement therapy (OR = 4.74, 95% CI 2.69, 8.37); and laparoscopic procedures (OR = 22.24, 95% CI 11.46, 42.69). CONCLUSIONS: Future studies should be conducted to explain the association with fertility surgeries, hormone usage, and other urogenital conditions; to clarify the timing of these associations; and to identify other factors related to DIV.     

A case-control study of microenvironmental risk factors for urban visceral leishmaniasis in a large city in Brazil, 1999-2000.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated potential microenvironmental risk factors for visceral leishmaniasis in urban and suburban areas, and developed risk scores to characterize the household and the neighborhood. These scores may be useful to identify microenvironments within cities that place residents at greater risk of visceral leishmaniasis. METHODS: In this case-control study, cases were all persons with visceral leishmaniasis reported from July 1999 through December 2000 in the Belo Horizonte metropolitan area, Brazil. Two kinds of controls-neighborhood and hospital-were used. Cases and controls were matched by age (+/-2 years). We developed four scores to characterize the microenvironment (indoor, outdoor, animal indoor, and animal outdoor), and also considered the level of urbanization of the area. RESULTS: A total of 106 neighborhood controls and 60 hospital controls were identified for 109 cases. Among the cases, 69 (63.3%) were men and 40 (36.7%) were women. Most cases were under 15 years old (64.2%), and 39 (35.8%) were 15 years old or more. The outdoor score [odds ratio (OR) = 1.49; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.03-2.14] and animal outdoor scores (OR = 1.79[95% CI 1.21-2.65]) were significantly associated with the odds of visceral leishmaniasis in our sample. We also found a significant interaction between sex and age. Compared to females 15 years old or more, males 15 years old or more were more likely to have visceral leishmaniasis (OR = 7.02[95% CI 2.20-22.20]). CONCLUSIONS: Animals in the neighborhood were associated with a greater odds of visceral leishmaniasis. Cases were more likely than controls to live in transitional or rural areas, although this difference was not statistically significant, possibly because of the small sample size.     

老年慢性病患者社会化住院现状调查及影响因素分析

目的 调查老年慢性病患者社会化住院现状及其影响因素。方法 便利抽样某三甲医院于2018年1月 - 2019年1月收治866例老年慢性病患者作为调查对象,logistic回归分析其影响因素。结果 866例老年慢性病患者符合“社会化住院”标准人数252例,比例为29.09%,住院阶段转科室（OR = 4.403,95%CI:2.855～6.789）、入院时ADL水平（OR = 1.478,95%CI:1.151～1.897）、达到出院标准ADL水平（OR = 1.359,95%CI:1.074～1.718）、年龄（OR = 1.128,95%CI:1.084～1.173）、家庭人均收入（OR = 2.484,95%CI:1.990～3.101）、医院获得性感染（OR = 2.078,95%CI:1.301～3.320）、入院途径（OR = 2.222,95%CI:1.424～3.467）、合并其他慢性病（OR = 3.743,95%CI:2.373～5.902）、抑郁（OR = 2.336,95%CI:1.485～3.674）、焦虑（OR = 2.272,95%CI:1.471～3.509）、认知障碍（OR = 1.970,95%CI:1.230～3.156）、病程（OR = 1.121,95%CI:1.057～1.189）、公费（OR = 3.116,95%CI:1.041～ 9.326）、新农合（OR = 0.376,95%CI:0.142～ 0.991）、自费（OR = 0.117,95%CI:0.029～0.473）均是“社会化住院”的显著影响因素（P＜0.05）。结论 老年慢性病患者“社会化住院”程度较高,其受到入院途径、医院内感染、生理、心理、精神状态、对他人依赖程度、经济收入和医保类型影响。     

Usefulness of a dispensary-based case-control study for assessing morbidity impact of a treated net programme

BACKGROUND: Case-control studies have been proposed as an appropriate tool for health impact evaluation of insecticide-treated nets (ITN) programmes. METHODS: A dispensary-based case-control study was carried out in one village in Tanzania. Each case of fever and parasitaemia in a child under 5 years was paired with one community and one dispensary control without fever and parasitaemia. Cases and controls were compared with regard to ITN ownership and other factors assessed by a questionnaire. A cross-sectional survey of factors associated with parasitaemia, including ITN use, was carried out during the study. Dispensary attendance rates of the study children were calculated using passive case detection data. RESULTS: Cases and dispensary controls had higher dispensary attendance rates compared to community controls and children with nets attended more for most of the illness events. A comparison of cases and community controls showed a strong and statistically significant association between untreated net use and being a case (odds ratio [OR] = 2.1, 95% CI : 1.3-3.4). For those with ITN there was a smaller and weaker association between risk of being a case and ITN use (OR =1.4, 95% CI : 0.9-2.2). Comparison of cases and dispensary controls showed no association between untreated or treated nets and the risk of being a case (for treated nets OR = 0.9, 95% CI : 0.5-1.4 and for untreated nets OR = 1.2, 95% CI : 0.7-2.0). These results are contrary to those from the cross-sectional assessment, where children with ITN had a lower prevalence of parasitaemia than those with no nets (OR = 0.5, 95% CI : 0.3-0.9), and also contrary to other assessments of the health impact of ITN in this population. CONCLUSIONS:The positive association between mild malaria and net ownership is counter-intuitive and best explained by attendance bias, since children with nets attended more frequently for all curative and preventive services at the dispensary than those without nets. Dispensary-based case-control studies may not be appropriate for assessing impact of treated nets on clinical malaria, while cross-sectional surveys might represent an attractive alternative.     

Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in German adults: the impact of children in the household

The objective of this case-control study was to identify the main risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in a German adult population. A self-administered questionnaire was given to CAP cases provided by the German competence network CAPNETZ and population-based, randomly selected controls (sex- and age-matched). Multivariate analysis showed that in addition to known risk factors such as previous CAP [odds ratio (OR) 1.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.3-2.1], more than one respiratory infection during the previous year (OR 3.6, 95% CI 2.9-4.5), chronic pulmonary diseases (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.7-3.0), number of comorbidities (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.4-1.9), and number of children in the household (2 children: OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.5-3.4; > or = 3 children: OR 3.2, 95% CI 1.5-7.0) were independent risk factors for CAP. This was pronounced in particular in people aged < or = 65 years. The most likely explanation for this finding is higher exposure to infectious agents.