Relationship of autistic traits between parents and children with and without autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundAlthough parents with a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have usually been identified as having the “broader autism phenotype”, empirical research on the differences in autistic-like characteristics between parents with and without ASD children has yielded inconsistent results.MethodThis survey of the autistic traits of parents and children was conducted in 119 parents with ASD children and 108 parents with typically developing (TD) children. Parents’ autistic traits were quantified using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient and children’s autistic traits were quantified using the Autism Spectrum Quotient—Children’s Version.ResultsThe autistic traits of ASD children were significantly higher than those of the TD children; however, autistic traits were similar between parents in the two groups. Furthermore, the correlations of autistic traits between parents and children were only significant for the TD group and not for the ASD group.ConclusionsThe current findings indicate that the relationship of autistic traits between parents and children exists in the TD group, and that the Autism-Spectrum Quotient may be used for parents as a screening aid to identify children who should be further screened for autistic traits.     

Parenting behaviours among mothers of pre-schoolers on the autism spectrum: Associations with parenting stress and children’s externalising behaviour problems

BackgroundParents of pre-schoolers diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) report increased parenting stress (i.e., stress related to the parent role) and more behaviour problems of the child compared with parents of non-autistic pre-schoolers. Parenting stress and children’s behaviour problems are both associated with parenting behaviours, but have not yet been investigated together.Method42 mothers of autistic and non-autistic pre-schoolers were observed during mother-child interaction and they reported on parenting behaviours, parenting stress, and children’s externalising behaviour problems. Spearman correlations between all variables were calculated for the ASD group and the non-ASD group separately, and Linear Mixed Models were built to investigate whether parenting stress and externalising behaviour problems were similarly associated to parenting behaviours in both groups.ResultsMothers in the ASD group reported more parenting stress and more externalising behaviour problems than mothers in the non-ASD group. In the ASD group only, parenting stress was related to externalising behaviour problems but not to the level of autism characteristics. In both groups, more externalising behaviour problems were associated with more observed negative parenting behaviours (i.e., criticising and ignoring the child), and more parenting stress was associated with less reported autonomy support.ConclusionsOur findings indicate that in the case of possibly problematic parenting behaviours, such as negativity and lack of autonomy support, it is important to investigate associated factors like parenting stress and children’s behaviour problems. An individualised strengths and needs assessment could then offer a tailored intervention to families with an autistic pre-schooler.     

Influences on the psychosocial adjustment of siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder in Taiwan and the United Kingdom

BackgroundThe present paper examined the psychosocial adjustment of typically developing (TD) siblings of children with ASD and the extent to which this is impacted by key demographic and psychosocial variables. A cross-cultural perspective was adopted to compare influences on coping and adjustment in Taiwan and the United Kingdom (UK).Method155 mother-TD sibling dyads participated, 80 in Taiwan and 75 in the UK. Participants reported by questionnaire on family demographics, symptom severity of the child with ASD, TD siblings’ life events, subjective well-being, social support, coping strategies, parent and sibling Broader Autism Phenotype (BAP) level and adjustment outcome.ResultsAccording to their self-report, TD siblings’ in Taiwan were fairly well adjusted, while slightly elevated difficulties were found in the UK sample, with peer problems the biggest concern. Impact of life experience, sibling coping, and social support were related to adjustment in both countries, but with different coping styles important in the two countries. In the UK, parents’ coping style and siblings’ own BAP level also contributed to outcome. Some differences between Taiwan and the UK samples may result from culturally-specific patterns in evaluation of child behaviours.ConclusionsThe findings from this large-scale questionnaire study have implications for clinical practice. UK siblings’ adjustment might be enhanced via intervention on parent coping style, while Taiwanese siblings may be better supported through promotion of their own coping. Health professionals should be aware of the influence of BAP levels in parents and TD siblings, which might change the way they experience stress and respond under pressure.     

Behavioral and emotional profile and parental stress in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder

Parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) were shown to experience more stress than parents of typically developing peers, although little is known about risk factors predicting stress in this population. The aim of this study was to evaluate parental stress levels and behavioral and emotional problems in a sample of preschool children with ASD as compared to typically developing (TD) peers and to investigate the role of several factors, including the severity of autistic symptoms, adaptive skills, cognitive abilities and behavioral and emotional problems, on parental stress. Results confirmed that parents of children with ASD experience higher stress levels than parents of TD and that children with ASD show more behavioral and emotional problems than controls. Moreover, our results showed that behavioral and emotional problems are strong predictors of parental stress, while stress related to a parent–child dysfunctional relationship was associated with daily living and communication skills as well as cognitive abilities. Findings revealed different behavioral and emotional problems affecting parental stress in ASD and TD samples. No association between the severity of autism symptoms and parental stress was detected. These results suggest that dysfunctional behaviors in preschool children with ASD have a strong impact on parental stress, profoundly affecting the well-being of the entire family. Therefore, strategies aimed at the early detection and management of these behavioral and emotional problems are crucial in order to prevent parental stress and to develop the most appropriate treatment interventions.     

Parenting stress within mother-father dyads raising a young child with autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundThe present study assessed different facets of parenting stress in families with a child with ASD (perceptions of parenting-related roles, parent-child interactions, and the child’s behaviors) at three timepoints: right after receiving an ASD diagnosis, immediately following specialized intervention services, and one year after receiving services, upon primary school entry.MethodParticipants were 258 mother-father dyads and their child. Parents provided demographic information and completed measures on their parenting stress and their child’s autism symptom severity.ResultsPartial correlations revealed that, at the time of diagnosis, after controlling for children’s age and autism symptom severity, mothers’ and fathers’ stress was positively and significantly associated with each other, suggesting a bidirectional relation between partners’ psychological adjustment. Cross-lagged panel analyses demonstrated different longitudinal and transactional links, depending on the dimension of stress examined.ConclusionsFindings are discussed in terms of supports that could assist mothers and fathers of children with ASD.     

Informing children about their sibling's diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder: An initial investigation into current practices

The manner in which typically developing (TD) children were informed about their sibling's diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) was examined in Japan. Seventy-seven parents, each with a child with ASD and a TD child, participated in a questionnaire survey. From the data obtained, it was revealed that parents informed 66.7% (72/108) TD children about their sibling's diagnosis, and usually informed them when they were around 9 years of age. Birth order, age spacing and type of ASD affected the parents’ decision about whether or not to inform them, and type of ASD, sex, age spacing and total number of children affected the timing of when parents informed them. TD children whose sibling had high-functioning ASD were informed less often and later. The most common question asked by TD children concerned communication problems, and parents often informed them of symptoms and difficulties of ASD as well as the diagnosis. Before receiving an explanation, 77.9% (53/68) of TD children had guessed the diagnosis or noticed something different about their sibling with ASD and 77.3% (51/66) of them reacted moderately to the parent's explanation. The influence of the parent's explanation on TD children's understanding of ASD warrants further research.     

Understanding perceptions underlying the self-reported stress among parents of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations for supporting families

BackgroundParents raising adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report higher stress than other parents. The influence of parents’ internal, or cognitive, experiences (i.e., their own perceptions) on this elevated stress has yet to be explored. Addressing this gap may reveal opportunities for enhancing support for families by elucidating malleable targets for reducing parents’ self-reported stress and/or informing family-focused intervention. The Double ABCX Model of Family Adaptation is a framework for understanding how perceptions, social support, and personal resources (i.e., coping) may affect stress.MethodsWe examined parents’ perceptions about ASD, perceived support, and coping among 214 parents of adolescents with ASD. Regression analyses were used to explore whether these factors were associated with parenting stress among those raising adolescents with ASD. Moderation effects of positive coping on the relationship between parent perceptions and parenting stress were also explored.ResultsParent perceptions about within family support, the extent of ASD symptom predictability, and treatment being able to ‘control’ ASD were related to parenting stress. However, positive coping did not moderate the relationship between these perceptions and parenting stress.ConclusionsStudy findings emphasize significant associations between specific parental perceptions and the self-reported stress among families of adolescents with ASD. Particularly important to parenting stress were how much parents’ perceived adequate support within the family, that treatment was useful for controlling their adolescent’s ASD, and that their adolescent’s symptoms were predictable. These findings suggest that the way parents think about their adolescents’ ASD and the adequacy of the support within their own families are associated with parenting stress, and therefore may serve as treatment targets for positively affecting whole family outcomes, as well as foundations for additional research.     

Multilevel approach to gender differences in adaptation in father-mother dyads parenting individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BackgroundMost studies of gender differences in the ASD literature present methodological limitations regarding the treatment of dyadic data. This work explored gender differences in the psychological adaptation of a sample of Spanish fathers and mothers of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) using a multilevel modeling approach (MLM) that accounts for nested data.MethodQuestionnaires including different adaptation measures were completed by 120 father-mother dyads raising individuals with ASD. We designed a two-level model (parents nested in dyads) with three predictor variables at level 1 (parent gender, parent age, and perception of child’s behavior problems) and four predictor variables at level 2 (child age, family income, ASD severity, and time since diagnosis) to examine the influence of these variables on negative and positive psychological outcomes (stress, anxiety, depression, and psychological well-being).ResultsMothers experienced higher levels of stress and anxiety than fathers, even after controlling for interdependence and sociodemographic factors. ASD severity was a significant predictor of both progenitors’ stress and well-being, and family income was also related to psychological well-being, although no gender differences were observed in the way these variables are related to parental outcomes.ConclusionsProfessionals should offer parents support to adjust expectations according to their child’s ASD severity given its relationship to parental stress and well-being. Considering that mothers experience higher levels of stress and anxiety than fathers, clinicians should encourage maternal protective factors. Finally, governments should consider new policies aiming to support ASD families’ treatment expenses.     

Évaluation d’un programme francophone de formation aux habiletés parentales dans le cadre des troubles du spectre de l’autisme auprès d’un groupe pilote

Objectives

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are not only affecting the development of the child diagnosed with this disorder, but also their entire family. Parents of children with ASD face many challenges that affect their well-being and family's quality of life. These parents need support to understand their child's diagnosis, to face maladaptive behaviors and to promote skill acquisition. Parent training programs (PT) are known to increase parents’ knowledge and skills in these areas. The potential benefits for the families are reduced stress for parents, improvements in the child's development and better parent–child interactions. Unfortunately, a few structured PTs are available to French-speaking families with an ASD child. In order to provide them with this type of intervention, we developed a French parent training named “L’A.B.C. du comportement de l’enfant ayant un TED/TSA: Des parents en action!” and based on applied behavior analysis. The application and evaluation of this new intervention technique follow the recommendations for research studies on psychosocial interventions for individuals with ASD. Therefore, an initial efficacy study has been conducted to establish the promise of this PT. This paper presents the results of the first group of parents.

Emotional and behavioral functioning of typically-developing sisters of children with autism spectrum disorder: The roles of ASD severity,parental stress,and marital status

BackgroundResearch has shown varied outcomes for typically-developing (TD) siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), suggesting that some emotional and behavioral difficulties may occur only under specific conditions. In addition to characteristics of the children with ASD, family contextual factors may also predict sibling adjustment.MethodThis study examined parent marital status and parental stress as moderators of the relation between ASD siblings’ symptom severity and emotional and behavioral adjustment in 56 TD sisters via self- and parent-report.ResultsAt moderate and high levels of parental stress, TD sisters with siblings with relatively severe ASD symptomatology and with unmarried parents reported the highest levels of emotional and behavioral difficulties. Yet, TD sisters with siblings with relatively less severe ASD symptomatology and with unmarried parents reported the lowest levels of challenging behaviors and emotional symptoms.ConclusionsThese findings indicate that clinicians treating families of children with relatively severe ASD and unmarried parents should be particularly cognizant of the functioning of TD sisters.     

An evaluation of wayfinding abilities in adolescent and young adult males with autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundWayfinding refers to traveling from place to place in the environment. Despite some research headway, it remains unclear whether individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) show strengths, weaknesses, or similarities in wayfinding compared with ability-matched typically developing (TD) controls.MethodThe current study tested 24 individuals with ASD, 24 mental-ability (MA) matched TD (MA-TD) controls, and 24 chronological-age (CA) matched TD (CA-TD) controls. Participants completed a route learning task and a survey learning task, both programmed in virtual environments, and a perspective taking task. Their parents completed questionnaires assessing their children’s everyday wayfinding activities and competence.ResultsOverall, CA-TD controls performed better than both the ASD group and the MA-TD group in both wayfinding tasks and the perspective taking task. Individuals with ASD performed similarly to the MA- TD controls on wayfinding performance except for backtracking routes. Perspective taking presented an area of deficit for people with ASD and it predicted individual differences in route learning and survey learning. Parents’ reports did not predict their children’s wayfinding performance. Two mini meta-analyses, including previous studies and the current study, showed a significant deficit in route learning, but not in survey learning for the ASD group relative to MA-TD controls.ConclusionsAlthough participants with ASD showed impairments in wayfinding relative to CA-TD controls, the impairment is not specific to their ASD, but rather due to their mental age. Nevertheless, route reversal in route learning may present unique difficulty for people with ASD beyond the effects of mental age.     

Brief report: Measures of effectiveness for single-question sleep problem screeners in children with autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundAlthough screening for sleep problems in children with ASD is recommended, primary care providers generally ask parents a single, high-level screening question about their child’s sleep. Can this capture whether a child has severe sleep problems?MethodParents of children with ASD ages 3–17 years recruited from a validated and verified US-based autism research registry completed an online survey on co-occurring conditions, including “degree of sleep problems”. The Composite Sleep Disturbance Index (CSDI) and its question on “parent satisfaction with current sleep pattern” were also incorporated.Results610 parent/child dyads were analyzed. 377 (62%) children had severe sleep problems per CSDI; 215 (57%) were parent-rated with Moderate/Severe sleep problems. 219 (93%) of 233 children without a severe sleep problem on CSDI were parent-rated as having None/Mild sleep problems. 94% with Moderate/Severe sleep problems per parents had severe sleep problems per CSDI. However, 15% of those whose parents rated as None had a severe sleep problem. 200 (33%) children had a Mild sleep problem rating; of these, 134 (67%) had CSDI severe sleep problem and 66 (33%) did not.ConclusionsA single question about sleep was good at classifying severe vs. non-severe sleep problems in children with ASD, especially with extreme responses. However, a single question was poor at classifying intermediate/non-extreme responses, and a significant number of children with severe sleep problems were missed. Screening with a short, validated questionnaire or asking more probing questions would assist in diagnosing most children with sleep problems. Parents may benefit from sleep education.     

Parental Depression and Child Behavior Problems: A Pilot Study Examining Pathways of Influence

Parents of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have higher rates of depressive symptoms than parents of typically developing children and parents of children with other developmental disorders. Parental depressive symptoms are strongly associated with problem behaviors in children; however, the mechanisms through which parental depression influences child behavior in families of children with ASD are unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parental depression and child behavior problems among families of children with ASD, more specifically to investigate the mediating variables that may explain the processes through which parental depression and child behavior problems are associated. The sample consisted of 33 parents of children with ASD (ages 2 to 5 years old). Findings suggested that authoritative parenting style significantly mediated the relationship between parental depression and behavior problems. This study highlights the importance of considering parental mental health and its impact on parenting behavior in interventions targeting child behavior problems.     

The predictors of distress in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder

Abstract

Background It is well recognised that parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often experience clinically significant levels of stress and depression. This study examined which ASD characteristic best predicted parental distress.

Method Parents of 109 children aged between 4 and 12 (M age = 7.89, SD = 2.43) completed self-report measures of anxiety, depression, stress, and parenting-specific stress. They also completed rating scales regarding their child's ASD characteristics.

Results This study found that the child's behavioural and emotional impairments predicted the parents’ overall levels of distress (i.e., stress/tension, anxiety, and depression), but not the stress associated with parenting. Instead, the child's social impairment severity was found to predict parenting-specific stress.

Conclusion This study highlights the pervasive influence of ASD symptomatology on the mental wellbeing of the parents and the importance of assisting parents to cope with the behavioural and social impairments of their child.     

Parental wellbeing of Iranian families with children who have developmental disabilities

To date, most research with families who have a child with developmental disabilities has been undertaken in English speaking countries. Poorer health, allied with increased levels of stress has been commonly reported for mothers but less is known about the impact on fathers and on overall family functioning. This study aimed to document the correlates of these parental impacts with Iranian mothers and fathers who had children with either intellectual disabilities (ID) or with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In all 121 parents (69 mothers and 52 fathers from 94 families) who had a child with a diagnosis of ADS, along with 115 parents of children with ID (83 mothers and 32 fathers from 101 families) volunteered to take part in the study. Each participant completed through interview standardised rating scales of parenting stress, emotional well-being, family functioning and satisfaction with caring role along with demographic information and details of informal supports. Structural Equation Modeling identified that family functioning was much poorer in families whose child had ASD and both mothers and fathers reported higher levels of stress. Poorer emotional well-being contributed to higher stress and was more frequent among mothers, single parents and those whose children had behaviour problems. Having other dependents living at home and more sources of informal support improved the emotional wellbeing of parents but not their stress or family functioning. Parents who derived greater satisfaction from their caring role tended to have better emotional health and less stress. Although the impact on Iranian parents of having a child with developmental disabilities is broadly similar to those of parents in other cultures, there are indications that children with ASD present distinct challenges to these families. The model derived in this study is a useful guide both for further research as well as family-centred interventions.     

Brief report: Parent-guided movements during play with children with autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundChildren with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) demonstrate social and communication impairments from an early age. While researchers have long investigated parenting behaviors in relation to children’s social and communication development, fewer studies have examined the relevance of movement-based parenting behaviors to facilitating communication and social engagement with young children. The present study aimed to investigate: (1) parent-guided movements (PGMs) within dyads of parents and typically developing (TD) children and children with ASD; and (2) children’s ASD diagnostic and receptive language scores as predictors of PGM frequency.MethodVideo-recorded play interactions of 33 TD dyads (mean age: 20.4 months) and 31 dyads with ASD (mean age: 32.6 months) were matched on child’s expressive language. Data were obtained from a longitudinal study on developmental language trajectories in ASD and coded for PGMs.ResultsOverall, parents of children with ASD initiated PGMs more frequently than parents of TD children during play (U = 269.00, z = − 3.58, p < 0.001). PGM frequency was predicted by children’s ADOS scores (X² = 5.46, p = 0.02, OR = 1.26, 95% CI [1.04, 1.54]) and receptive language (X² = 4.15, p = 0.04, OR = 5.43, 95% CI [1.10, 27.67]).ConclusionsFindings suggest that parents of children with ASD and low receptive language may utilize more movement-based strategies to compensate for their children’s impaired social engagement and verbal comprehension. This study offers insight on a particular movement-based modality characterizing ASD dyads that can be used as a measure in parent-mediated interventions.     

Coparenting Competence in Parents of Children with ASD: A Marker of Coparenting Quality

The coparenting relationship has been linked to parenting stress, parenting self-efficacy and many other concerns associated with the development of children with ASD. Parents of children with ASD (N?=?22) were interviewed to explore three domains of their coparenting relationship; (1) adaptation to the emergence of their child’s autism, (2) parenting their child with ASD, (3) expectations for their child’s developmental outcomes. The concept of coparenting competence, developed during analysis, describes collective perceptions of parenting efficacy. Parents linked perceptions of coparenting competence to their, ability to cope with diagnosis and parenting, motivation to do what they could for their child, and hopes for their child’s development. The concept of coparenting competence could play an important role in future research and intervention.     

“Set in Stone” or “Ray of Hope”: Parents’ Beliefs About Cause and Prognosis After Genomic Testing of Children Diagnosed with ASD

Despite increasing utilization of chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) for autism spectrum disorders (ASD), limited information exists about how results influence parents’ beliefs about etiology and prognosis. We conducted in-depth interviews and surveys with 57 parents of children with ASD who received CMA results categorized as pathogenic, negative or variant of uncertain significance. Parents tended to incorporate their child’s CMA results within their existing beliefs about the etiology of ASD, regardless of CMA result. However, parents’ expectations for the future tended to differ depending on results; those who received genetic confirmation for their children’s ASD expressed a sense of concreteness, acceptance and permanence of the condition. Some parents expressed hope for future biomedical treatments as a result of genetic research.     

Associations between child behavior problems,family management,and depressive symptoms for mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder

PurposeThe purpose of the current study was to examine the relationships between child behavior problems and mothers’ depressive symptoms and to determine whether family management mediates this relationship.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey of parents in a southeastern state. Mothers of children with ASD (n = 234) completed self-reported measures of child behavior problems, depressive symptoms, and family management using ad-hoc questions, CES-D-Boston short form, and family management measure (FaMM), respectively. We used a parallel multiple mediator model to address the study hypotheses.ResultsChildren’s behavior problems were significantly associated with mothers’ depressive symptoms and with all five subscales of the FaMM. However, only the Family Life Difficulty subscale was a significant predictor of parent depressive symptoms, suggesting that Family Life Difficulty was the only mediator of the association between child behavior problems and mothers’ depressive symptoms. After accounting for the mediators, the direct effect of child behavior problems on parent depressive symptoms was non-significant.ConclusionAs the severity of child behavior problems increased, mothers of children with ASD perceived a greater impact of ASD on their family life, which in turn increased the levels of the mothers’ depressive symptoms. Family Life Difficulty assesses parent perceptions of the extent to which their child with ASD influences family relationships and routines, suggesting a need for family-centered services that assist the family in maintaining or adapting to their routines.     

Empowerment in parents of school-aged children with and without developmental disabilities

Background Despite the widespread use of the term ‘empowerment’ in clinical literature to describe both a desirable process and the outcome of service delivery, the term remains more of a theoretical than practical construct. This study examined the factors that contribute to empowerment in parents of school-aged children with and without developmental disabilities (DD) using the Double ABCX model of family adaptation contrasted with the linear ACBX model. Methods Parents of children with (n = 100, 97% mothers) and without (n = 100, 98% mothers) DD completed questionnaires relating to child behaviour problems, parent stress and well-being, and formal and informal support. Structural equation modelling was used Results Parents of children with DD reported more child behaviour problems, more stress, less well-being and more social support than parents of children without DD. Structural equation modelling supported the ACBX model for both groups. A linear relationship was found in which parent well-being and resources mediated the relationship between the stressor (child behaviour problems) and the outcome (empowerment). Conclusions The results of the current study support Hastings and Taunt's assertion in 2002, in that empowerment was adequately explained using a traditional model of family functioning. The significant prediction offered by the parent's resources points to the need to deliver services in a manner that is more family-centred. In the education system, this means providing parents with clear messages regarding the schools goals, clarifying the parent's rights and responsibilities, including the parent in planning and decision making, respecting their knowledge as caregivers and supporting their hopes for their child.