Fentanyl: clinical use as postoperative analgesic--epidural/intrathecal route.

The administration of epidural and intrathecal opioids for the management of postoperative pain is well established. Fentanyl, because of its greater lipophilicity, offers a number of advantages over morphine for epidural analgesia, including a lower incidence of side effects and reduced risk of delayed-onset respiratory depression. The relatively short duration of action of epidural fentanyl makes this agent more ideally suited for continuous infusion or patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA). The effective doses and adverse effects profile of epidural fentanyl are reasonably well understood. Because of the lack of spread through the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and hence the segmental nature of the analgesia achieved, location of epidural catheter placement is of paramount importance when this agent is used. Prolonged epidural infusion of fentanyl may result in high systemic concentrations not dissimilar to IV infusion, and, therefore, the greatest efficacy of epidural fentanyl administration may be in combination with low concentrations of bupivacaine, an approach that achieves a synergistic effect. 2-Chloroprocaine has been shown to antagonize epidural fentanyl analgesia. Intrathecal fentanyl for postoperative analgesia is limited by its short duration of action with single-bolus administration. The widespread international increase in the use of epidural fentanyl for postoperative analgesia promises further improvements and refinement in techniques.     

Epidural Labor Analgesia: Continuous Infusion Versus Patient-Controlled Epidural Analgesia With Background Infusion Versus Without a Background Infusion

The purpose of this study was to compare the total epidural dose of 3 commonly used labor epidural modalities. After local institutional review board approval, 195 laboring parturients received an epidural catheter for labor analgesia. All patients received an initial bolus of 0.1% ropivacaine (10 mL) and fentanyl (100 microg). Maintenance of labor analgesia consisted of ropivacaine 0.1% with fentanyl 2 microg/mL. Patients were then randomly assigned into 3 groups: Group 1 (continuous epidural infusion [CEI]), continuous infusion at 10 mL/h; group 2 (CEI + patient-controlled epidural analgesia [PCEA]), CEI at 5 mL/h with a demand dose of 5 mL allowed every 20 minutes with a 20 mL/h maximum dose; group 3 (PCEA), demand doses only of 5 mL every 15 minutes with a 20 mL/h maximum dose. Measured variables included total epidural dose, total bolus requests and boluses delivered, number of staff interventions, pain Visual Analog Scale (VAS; 0-100), modified Bromage scores, stage I and II labor duration, delivery outcome, and maternal satisfaction after delivery. No differences were noted with respect to pain VAS, modified Bromage scores, stage I and II labor duration, number of staff interventions, delivery outcome, and maternal satisfaction score. Total infusion dose was lower in demand dose only PCEA compared with CEI and CEI + PCEA groups (P = < .01). Demand dose-only PCEA results in less total epidural dose compared with CEI and CEI + PCEA without affecting labor duration, motor block, pain VAS, maternal and neonatal outcomes, and maternal satisfaction. PERSPECTIVE: This article compares 3 commonly used labor epidural delivery modalities (traditional continuous epidural infusion, patient-controlled epidural analgesia with a background infusion, and demand dose-only patient-controlled epidural analgesia). Benefits in epidural dose reduction with demand dose only PCEA does not translate into improved maternal and neonatal outcome.     

Prolonged epidural infusion of ropivacaine in the complex of anesthesiological protection at pancreatoduodenal surgery

The purpose of this study was to examine the expediency and efficiency of use of an infusion administration of naropine into the epidural space for intraoperative anesthesia and to develop the optimum procedure for administering this anesthetic during operations on the upper abdomen. Studies were performed in 43 patients operated on for different pancreatic diseases. Anesthesia based on epidural naropine infusion versus ataralgesia was compared. This study indicated that epidural naropine infusion-based anesthesia provides stable hemodynamic parameters and reduces the use of narcotic analgesics by more than twice. Inclusion of prolonged epidural infusion of 0.3% naropine solution into the anesthesiological appliance scheme during this type of operations provides an adequate antinociceptive protection and contributes to the early activation of patients, which prevents the development of postoperative complications.     

持续硬膜外输注镇痛结合交感神经射频热凝治疗四肢带状疱疹后遗神经痛的疗效

摘要 目的：观察CT 引导下四肢带状疱疹后遗神经痛（PHN）持续硬膜外输注镇痛结合交感神经射频热凝治疗的临床结果。 方法：32例四肢带状疱疹后遗神经痛患者随机分为对照组（A组,采用硬膜外置管持续输注镇痛治疗,n=17）和联合治疗组（B组,采用持续硬膜外置管镇痛3—4周后行交感神经射频热凝治疗3次,n=15）,比较治疗前后7d、1个月、6个月、1年的视觉模拟评分（VAS）、疼痛缓解率、生存质量评分（QOL）、麻木评分、肌力下降发生率。 结果：治疗后两组患者的VAS评分均较治疗前明显降低（P<0.05）;治疗后6个月、1年,B组的VAS、QOL、疼痛缓解率均优于A组（P<0.05）,同时A、B两组的麻木发生率和麻木评分均无显著性差异（P>0.05）,治疗后两组均无肌力下降发生。 结论：四肢带状疱疹后遗神经痛持续硬膜外镇痛结合交感神经射频毁损治疗可有效缓解疼痛,长期疗效高于单纯持续硬膜外镇痛,同时并不增加麻木及肌力下降的发生率。     

Management of an Epidural Abscess After Continuous Epidural Catheter Infusion

Abstract: Objective: ? To increase awareness of the possibility of epidural infection after continuous epidural infusion. ? Outline the salient diagnostic features of epidural infection. ? Outline a strategy to manage epidural infection and minimize morbidity. Setting: Academic multidisciplinary pain clinic Patient: A patient with a left knee meniscal tear with a history of Chronic Regional Pain Syndrome Type I (CRPS I) of the left foot. Interventions: Attempted control of CRPS I symptoms with a tunnelled epidural catheter infusion. Results and Conclusions: The patient developed an epidural abscess diagnosed on the 11^th postoperative day. The catheter was removed and the patient was treated successfully with intravenous antibiotics.     

Epidural hematoma associated with dextran infusion

The authors describe a case of epidural hematoma in association with dextran infusion in a patient who had undergone a peripheral vascular operation with epidural analgesia. Possible mechanisms for the anticoagulant effect of dextran and guidelines for the use of anticoagulant therapy in patients undergoing epidural anesthesia are discussed.     

不同脊麻药对术后持续输注镇痛和尿潴留的影响

目的 观察不同的脊麻药对脊椎-硬膜外腔联合麻醉后硬膜外镇痛的尿潞留的影响。方法 60例下肢择期手术患，选择脊椎-硬膜外腔联合麻醉，以布比卡因和罗哌卡因行脊麻，然后以布比卡因 吗啡行术后硬膜外镇痛，观察其视觉模拟镇痛评分和对尿潴留的影响。结果 两组病人镇痛效果均好，无明显差别；以0．5％罗哌卡因重比重液行脊麻，尿潴留发生率明显比以0．5％布比卡因重比重液行脊麻低，有显性差异。结论 蛛网膜下隙-硬膜外腔联合麻醉后硬膜外镇痛，脊麻选择0．5％罗哌卡因重比重液镇痛效果好，尿潴留发生率较低，值得临床推广应用。     

The effects of volume loading during epidural analgesia

We have determined the effects of volume loading on the cardiovascular changes during epidural analgesia in 37 patients, who underwent various kinds of surgery. The patients were placed in 4 groups, depending upon the level of analgesia and utilization of volume loading with colloidal solutions. If the analgesia extended above Th4 we grouped them as "high epidural" and lower than Th5 level they were grouped as "low epidural". The cardiac output was measured through a Swan-Ganz catheter with thermo-dilution methods and cardiovascular variables were calculated by standard formulas. Under epidural block the most significant changes were a fall in blood pressure with decrease in cardiac output which were more pronounced during high epidural analgesia. Volume loading during the induction period with colloidal solutions would prevent the marked fall of blood pressure in half of cases studied, but in the other half the infusion was not effective for the prevention of fall in blood pressure. On every occasion over-loading effects on the right side of the heart were observed with the infusion of colloidal solutions. Also, a marked fall in systemic vascular resistance was observed with the infusion. In consequence the volume loading did not prevent the fall in arterial pressure. To manage the latter which was observed during epidural block, some sympathomimetic agents would be necessary with the volume loading. This approach would be much more important in patients with dehydration and high level of epidural analgesia.     

Epidural analgesia—experience of 5628 patients in a large teaching hospital derived through audit

A prospective audit of 5628 surgical patients was conducted to determine the success, failure and complication rates associated with postoperative epidural analgesia. The majority of patients received infusions of bupivacaine 0.1% with hydromorphone 20 μg/cm³. However, elderly and frail patients received plain bupivacaine 0.1% or bupivacaine 0.1% with fentanyl 2 μg/cm³. Postoperatively, epidural infusions were selected, adjusted or terminated as indicated. Termination of epidural analgesia was defined as either success, if the infusion was continued until there was no further need for epidural analgesia, or failure, if the infusion was discontinued prematurely due to problems with the catheter or treatment that could not be controlled through intervention. Twenty-two percent of patients had their epidural catheter removed prematurely due to either technical (catheter) or treatment (medication) problems that could not be resolved. Technical problems with the catheter caused 807 failures (14% of all patients). Almost 70% of the technical failures (N=554) were due to catheter dislodgement. Treatment problems resulted in 451 failures (8% of all patients). The majority of treatment failures were due to inadequate analgesia despite functioning catheters. This audit has proved useful in maintaining standards of care and in identifying problems with postoperative epidural therapy that still need improvement. It allows a balanced assessment of the value of this treatment in the setting of a large teaching hospital and is the largest reported series of postoperative epidural hydromorphone analgesia.     

Contamination of bags for continuous epidural infusion

A prospective study was conducted firstly to determine whether the use of an epidural infusion posed an infection risk, and secondly how often the epidural infusion set should be changed when used for short term postoperative pain relief. Eighty-nine patients were studied over a six-month period. The epidural catheter tips (EC) and infusion were cultured. The mean duration of the epidural infusion was 4.3 days (SD 1.65). Fifty-one males and 38 females were recruited with an average age of 70.5 years (SD 9.80); 43 patients had a single bag change and 46 had no bag change. Three times Staphylococcus epidermidis and once Streptococcus viridans were cultured from epidural fluid. Thirty-nine patients grew micro-organisms in EC tips, 31 common skin flora and eight unexpected organisms eg Acinetobacter species (n=5), MRSA (n=1), coliform (n=1 unspecified), Citrobacter species (n=1). No patient developed local or systemic signs of infection related to the device and there was no relationship between the duration of the infusion and systemic infection related to the device. The results suggest that the routine changing of sets after a single bag change is unjustified.     

硬膜外麻醉下使女性患者意识消失的丙泊酚血浆靶浓度的半数有效剂量

目的:探讨硬膜外麻醉下使女性患者意识消失的丙泊酚血浆靶浓度的半数有效剂量。方法:选择100例拟行子宫和/或卵巢切除的患者,常规给予硬膜外麻醉。术前按序贯法靶控输注丙泊酚,初始血浆靶浓度为3.8μg/mL,递增(减)梯度为0.2μg/mL。以呼之不应和睫毛反射消失作为入睡指标,将患者分为入睡组51例和未睡组49例。监测患者脑电双频谱指数和血流动力学指标。结果:硬膜外麻醉下靶控输注丙泊酚使女性患者意识消失的血浆靶浓度的半数有效剂量为3.2μg/mL。应用丙泊酚后入睡组和未入睡组的脑电双频谱指数最低值分别为(61.2±4.65)和(80.4±4.68),二者差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:通过调节丙泊酚的血浆靶控输注浓度,将硬膜外麻醉下女性患者的镇静程度调整到最佳水平,脑电双频谱指数可以很好地反映其麻醉镇静深度。     

Pediatric analgesia with epidural fentanyl citrate administered by nursing staff.

Even though epidural analgesia is effective and has advantages over conventional postoperative analgesia, it is also labor intensive, requiring 24-hour supervision by an anesthesiologist. In an effort to decrease the manpower requirements, some hospitals allow the nursing staff to administer epidural narcotics to adult patients. In children, however, this practice has been limited. We retrospectively reviewed our experience over 12 months with this procedure. Epidural catheters (caudal, lumbar, or thoracic) were placed in 43 pediatric patients for acute and chronic pain management. All patients received a continuous epidural infusion of bupivacaine hydrochloride with fentanyl citrate. Eleven (26%) of the 43 patients required supplemental analgesia and were given 45 doses of epidural fentanyl. Adequate analgesia was achieved in all patients. No intravascular or intrathecal injections were noted, nor did any inadvertent epidural injections of medications occur. No patient had respiratory depression (respiratory rate less than 10% for age). We believe epidural administration of fentanyl by a carefully educated nursing staff is safe and effective in children.     

Epidural administration of opiates by a new device

Epidural administration of opiates as a long-term treatment of cancer pain, even for out-patients, is now well established. Most reports describe intermittent injections given several times a day, which may have technical and personal disadvantages. Continuous epidural infusion may be preferable. This report describes 16 patients who were treated with epidural opiates delivered by plastic infusion pumps. Pain relief was effective, the equipment was inexpensive and home treatment was easily accomplished.     

Persistent Post-DuraI-Puncture Headache Treated With Epidural Infusion of Dextran

SYNOPSIS
A retrospective review was done on medical records of 13 patients with persistent post-dural-puncture headaches after one or more epidural blood patches. Headache occurred in nine patients with post-laminectomy syndrome after "wet taps" while performing epidural blocks. In two patients post-dural-puncture headache appeared after long term implanted intrathecal catheters were removed. In two other cases headache developed after spinal anesthesia. Treatment included bed rest, intravenous hydration and at least one epidural blood patch; three patients were given 60 milliliters of epidural saline, without success. Eight epidural catheters were inserted through the lumbar access and five through the caudal approach. Initially, a bolus of 20 milliliters of dextran-40 was given followed by an infusion of 3 mL/hr, until 12 hours after the head pain and any other related symptoms subsided. In all patients the headache disappeared within 20 hours after initiating therapy (9.55 mean hours, SD ± 0.79). In five patients headache ceased in less than five hours. Nausea and photo-phobia subsided earlier. Patients with post-dural-puncture headache resistant to other treatments, including at least one epidural blood patch, were successfully treated by a bolus followed by continuous epidural infusion of dextran-40.     

Effect of long-term epidural analgesia and nitroglycerin infusion on formation of necrosis zone and clinical course of myocardial infarction

AIM: To study effects of long-term morphine-clofelin epidural analgesia and infusion of nitroglycerin on formation of the necrosis focus and the clinical course of acute myocardial infarction (MI). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Ninety patients were examined within the first 12 hours of anterior macrofocal MI. Forty six patients of the study group received long-term morphine-clofelin epidural analgesia and nitroglycerine infusion within the first 24 hours of the disease. Forty-four control patients were anesthetized conventionally with intravenous morphine. Development of MI was assessed with electrocardiotopography and dynamic examination of MV CK in the blood serum. RESULTS: The degree and area of the myocardial lesion were initially similar in the study and control groups. These indices were less in dynamics in the study group. On MI day 5 and 10 myocardial necrosis zone significantly diminished in the study group. CONCLUSION: Long-term epidural analgesia and nitroglycerin infusion provide effective analgesia, localizes the ischemic and necrotic focus, have a good effect on hemodynamics and improve a MI clinical course.     

Chronic cancer pain management with the Du Pen epidural catheter

Chronic epidural administration of narcotics and/or local anesthetics is sometimes required in those few patients where utilization of systemic narcotics and appropriate adjuvant medications is unsuccessful in controlling intractable cancer pain. The Du Pen epidural catheter (Davol, Inc.) a silicone-based tunneled catheter modeled after the Hickman central venous catheter, has provided a safe, reliable means of long-term administration of drugs to the epidural space in over 400 patients to date. A systematic approach to the pharmacology of epidural pain control includes drug choice, bolus dosing versus infusion, volume guidelines, and titration protocols. Utilization of local anesthetics in combination with narcotics allows for enhanced pain relief in those patients refractory to narcotics as is frequently the case with neurogenic involvement. Follow-up care of patients receiving epidural narcotic with or without local anesthetic can be accomplished by a trained home cae team. Successful epidural pain management requires thorough patient and caregiver education, frequent pain assessment, and monitoring of side effects, with close collaboration between patient/family, pharmacist, home care nurse, and physician.     

Epidural and intrathecal morphine in intensive care units

Analgesia and sedation for patients in intensive care units (ICU) who require mechanical ventilation are most commonly provided by intermittent i.v. injections of opiates and benzodiazepines. However, the technique has a number of disadvantages. Also, in many case these drugs are inadequate, even in large doses, and muscle relaxants may be necessary for patient respirator coordination. The analgesic effect of epidural and intrathecal morphine was studied in 24 ICU patients requiring controlled ventilation. In spite of large doses of phenoperidine, diazepam and a number of other analgesics and sedatives, all patients were restless, agitated and coordinated poorly with the respirator. Through an indwelling epidural catheter morphine (4 mg) was injected intermittently as required in 11 patients and as a continuous infusion (20–40 mg/day) in five patients. In eight patients morphine (2–4 mg) was injected intrathecally as a single injection. Both epidural and intrathecal morphine gave potent analgesia and good patient respirator coordination. The duration of analgesia was shortest after intermittent injections of epidural morphine and longest after intrathecal morphine. However, continuous infusion of morphine in the epidural catheter appears to be the most practical method. In patients with multiple trauma and in patients where frequent assessment of the level of consciousness is important this technique is superior to parenteral analgesic sedative combinations. Intrathecal morphine may be indicated in patients in a compromised position. The daily analgesic requirement can be reduced by about 10–100 times by the use of epidural and intrathecal morphine respectively.     

Labor analgesia

Regional analgesia has become the most common method of pain relief used during labor in the United States. Epidural and spinal analgesia are two types of regional analgesia. With epidural analgesia, an indwelling catheter is directed into the epidural space, and the patient receives a continuous infusion or multiple injections of local anesthetic. Spinal injections are usually single injections into the intrathecal space. A combination of epidural and spinal analgesia, known as a walking epidural, also is available. This technique combines the rapid pain relief from the spinal regional block with the constant and consistent effects from the epidural block. It allows sufficient motor function for patients to ambulate. Complications with regional analgesia are uncommon, but may include postdural puncture headache. Rare serious complications include neurologic injury, epidural hematoma, or deep epidural infection. Regional analgesia increases the risk of instrument-assisted vaginal delivery, and family physicians should understand the contraindications and risks of complications. Continuous labor support (e.g., doula), systemic opioid analgesia, pudendal blocks, water immersion, sterile water injections into the lumbosacral spine, self-taught hypnosis, and acupuncture are other options for pain management during labor.     

Continuous intrathecal fentanyl infusion for postoperative analgesia

Following inadvertent dural puncture during epidural catheter placement, a 20 gauge polyethylene catheter was placed in the intrathecal space, and continuous spinal anesthesia with hyperbaric bupivacaine was administered intraoperatively to supplement general anesthesia. Following surgery, a continuous intrathecal fentanyl infusion (0.2 mcg/kg/hr) was administered to provide postoperative analgesia. The child was awake and comfortable throughout this time and required no supplemental analgesic agents. Although epidural catheters are still our preferred method of analgesia, intrathecal fentanyl infusion is one alternative when inadvertent dural puncture occurs.     

硬膜外埋入式输注系统外接持续输入泵用于晚期癌痛的临床研究

目的:探讨硬膜外埋入式输注系统外接持续输入泵(PCA)用于晚期癌痛的疗效、可行性及安全性。方法:46例中、重度晚期癌痛患者采用硬膜外埋入式输注系统外接PCA注药镇痛,PCA总容量为250 ml,设定维持量、单次冲击量、锁定时间等参数。记录患者术前1 d、术后3 h、3 d、15 d和30 d VAS评分及术前1 d、术后7 d、15 d、30 d疼痛对生活质量影响评分,并观察镇痛后恶心、呕吐、便秘、尿潴留的发生率。结果:治疗后46例患者VAS评分及疼痛对生活质量影响评分均明显降低(P0.05),术后少数患者出现尿潴留、皮肤瘙痒、恶心呕吐,但与术前比较无明显差异(P0.05)。结论:硬膜外埋入式输注系统外接PCA在晚期癌症镇痛中疗效确切,患者生活质量明显改善,不良反应少,值得临床推广。