Clinical features in the management of selected hypertensive emergencies

A hypertensive emergency is a clinical diagnosis that is appropriate when marked hypertension is associated with acute target-organ damage; in this setting, lowering of blood pressure (BP) is typically begun within hours of diagnosis. For hypertensive urgency with no acute target-organ damage, BP lowering may occur over hours to days. A hypertensive emergency may present with cardiac, renal, neurologic, hemorrhagic, or obstetric manifestations, but prompt recognition of the condition and institution of rapidly acting parenteral therapy to lower BP (typically in an intensive care unit) are widely recommended. For aortic dissection, the systolic BP target is lower than 120 mm Hg, to be achieved during the first 20 minutes using a beta-blocker (typically esmolol) and a vasodilator to reduce both shear stress on the aortic tear and the BP, respectively. Otherwise, sodium nitroprusside is the agent with the lowest acquisition cost and longest record of successful use in hypertensive emergencies; however, it is metabolized to toxic thiocyanate and cyanide. Other attractive agents include fenoldopam mesylate, nicardipine, and labetalol; in pregnant women, magnesium and nifedipine are used commonly. Most authors suggest a reduction in mean arterial pressure of approximately 10% during the first hour and a further 10% to 15% during the next 2 to 4 hours; hypoperfusion can result if the BP is lowered too suddenly or too far (eg, into the range of <140/90 mm Hg). Oral antihypertensive therapy can usually be instituted after 6 to 12 hours of parenteral therapy, and the patient moved out of the intensive care unit, when consideration should be given to screening for secondary causes of hypertension. Long-term follow-up to ensure adequate control of hypertension is necessary to prevent further target-organ damage and recurrence of another hypertensive emergency.     

Therapeutic survey: hypertensive emergencies

The most crucial aspect is to ascertain whether the patient's condition truly warrants emergency management. The choice of oral versus parenteral drug(s) depends on the urgency of the situation as well as the patient's general condition. The level to which the blood pressure should be lowered varies with the type of hypertensive crisis and should be strictly individualized. There is no predestined level for the goal of therapy. Complications of therapy--namely, hypotension and ischemic brain damage, can occur in patients receiving multiple potent antihypertensive drugs in large doses without adequate monitoring. Such complications can be minimized by gentle lowering of blood pressure. An asymptomatic patient who presents with severe hypertension, i.e., a diastolic blood pressure 130-140 mmHg, need not be treated with parenteral drugs. After the resolution of a hypertensive crisis, one should determine the possible factors that might have contributed to the development of the hypertensive crisis such as non-adherence to prescribed therapy or the presence and/or progression of a secondary form of hypertension such as renal artery stenosis.     

Treatment of Hypertension in the Institutionalized Elderly

The goal of antihypertensive therapy in elderly institutionalized persons is to reduce the blood pressure to <140/90 mm Hg if possible. Elderly persons with diastolic hypertension should have their diastolic blood pressure lowered to 80–85 mm Hg. Elderly persons with stage 2 or 3 hypertension, stage 1 hypertension and target organ damage, evidence of clinical cardiovascular disease, or diabetes mellitus should be treated with antihypertensive drug therapy immediately in addition to lifestyle modification. The initial antihypertensive drug in elderly persons without associated medical conditions should be a diuretic or β-blocker because these drugs have been shown to decrease cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in controlled clinical trials. The initial antihypertensive drug in elderly persons should depend on the associated medical condition. If a second antihypertensive drug is indicated, a drug from another class should be administered. If a diuretic is not the initial drug, it is usually indicated as the second drug. If the antihypertensive response is inadequate after reaching the full dose of two classes of drugs, a third drug from another class should be added. Causes of secondary hypertension should be identified and treated.     

Hypertension in the intensive care unit

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The severity of hypertensive crises is determined by the presence of target organ damage rather than the level of blood pressure. Hypertensive urgencies with no signs of organ dysfunction can therefore be distinguished from hypertensive emergencies in which the presence of severe end-organ damage requires prompt therapy. Hypertensive emergencies include acute aortic dissection, hypertensive encephalopathy, acute myocardial ischaemia, severe pulmonary oedema, eclampsia, and acute renal failure. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: Malignant hypertension is a severe form of hypertensive emergency demanding special consideration because of the risks of permanent blindness and renal failure. Catecholamine excess and postoperative hypertension may also sometimes require urgent treatment. The management of patients with hypertensive emergencies must be ensured in an intensive care unit, and must include the parenteral administration of antihypertensive drugs and accurate blood pressure monitoring. SUMMARY: Except for acute aortic dissection, the recommended goals of treatment are a reduction of mean arterial pressure by no more than 20% during the first few hours, because an abrupt fall in blood pressure in patients with preexisting hypertension may induce severe ischaemic injury in major organs as a result of the chronic adaptation of autoregulation mechanisms. Hypertension in the context of acute stroke should be treated only rarely and cautiously because of the presence of impaired autoregulation.     

Besondere Bluthochdruckfälle

In 2013 the new European Society of Cardiology/European Society of Hypertension (ESC/ESH) guidelines for the treatment of arterial hypertension were published. The focus in these new guidelines is the treatment of hypertensive patients under special conditions. Particular attention is paid, for instance to the treatment of white coat hypertension and masked hypertension. Older patients, the so-called octogenarians benefit from antihypertensive treatment but with a higher target blood pressure. Women in childbearing years should avoid blockers of the renin-angiotensin system due to the potential teratogenic effects of these substances. An antihypertensive therapy with methyldopa, labetalol or nifedipin should be initiated in pregnant women when the blood pressure is over 160/110 mmHg. A decrease of blood pressure to less than 130/80 mmHg does not bring benefits for patients with diabetes mellitus or renal failure. In cases of concomitant proteinuria, systolic target values of 130 mmHg can be considered. An antihypertensive treatment is not recommended in acute stroke but must be weighed against the clinical situation. Blood pressure in patients with coronary heart disease should not be below 120/70 mmHg due to an increase in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Therapeutic alternatives in patients with resistant hypertension are mineralocorticoid receptor blockers, the alpha blocker doxazosin or an intensified diuretic therapy, for example as a sequential blockade of nephrons.     

valsartan in elderly isolated systolic hypertension (VALISH) study: rationale and design.

Although antihypertensive therapy has been proven to reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, it is unclear how much blood pressure should be decreased in elderly patients with hypertension. The Valsartan in Elderly Isolated Systolic Hypertension (VALISH) study is a multicenter parallel-group study comparing the incidence of cardiovascular events between two target systolic blood pressure levels, below 140 mmHg and below 150 mmHg, under treatment with valsartan, an angiotensin II receptor blocker, as an initial antihypertensive drug in elderly patients with isolated systolic hypertension. The number of patients to be recruited is 3,000 and the duration of follow-up is at least 2 years. This 3,000-patient trial was designed with a two-sided alpha level of 0.05 and 80% power to detect the difference in incidence of cardiovascular events between the target blood pressure levels based on estimation of the cardiovascular events ratio as 21.5/1,000 patient-years and 29.1/1,000 patient-years for the two blood pressure levels. The VALISH study, a large-scale investigator-initiated trial in Japan, will determine whether age should be considered in setting target blood pressure in treatment of isolated systolic hypertension in elderly patients.     

糖尿病合并动脉粥样硬化性心血管病患者血压控制现状调查

目的了解中国糖尿病合并动脉粥样硬化性心血管病患者血压控制及降压药物使用情况,分析影响血压控制的因素。方法对参加“第二项心脏保护研究”临床试验筛选门诊的糖尿病合并动脉粥样硬化性心血管病患者进行调查,记录病史和用药情况,测量血压、BMI和腰围。结果2007年6月至2009年10月期间,在14个城市共调查6522例患者,平均年龄64岁。70％有高血压病史,其中12％未服任何降压药物,仅18％血压达标。缺血性脑卒中病史（OR0．70,95％CI 0．58～0．84）和向心性肥胖（OR0．64,95％C10．46～0．89）与血压达标呈负相关。无高血压病史的患者中,64％血压高于130／80mmHg。结论我国糖尿病合并心血管病患者血压控制情况距指南要求仍存在很大差距,应注意加强对此类患者的血压控制。     

非洛地平缓释片对原发性高血压患者动态血压的影响及与细胞内胞浆游离钙浓度的关系

目的 观察非洛地平对高血压患者动态血压的影响及与细胞内胞浆游离钙浓度的关系。方法 检测28例原发性高血压患者及相应对照组之血压及淋巴细胞胞浆游离钙浓度及非洛地平缓释片治疗四周后血压及淋巴细胞胞浆游离钙浓度的变化,并观察其治疗前后24h动态血压的变化。结果 原发性高血压患者淋巴细胞胞浆游离钙浓度显著高于对照组,非洛地平缓释片治疗后淋巴细胞胞浆游离钙浓度和血压显著下降(P<0.01),淋巴细胞胞浆游离钙浓度的下降幅度与收缩压及舒张压下降幅度呈正相关(r=O.866,P<0.001及r=0.734,P<0.001)。治疗后24h平均收缩压、24h平均舒张压、日间平均收缩压、日间平均舒张压、夜间平均收缩压、夜间平均舒张压、日间收缩压负荷、日间舒张压负荷、夜间收缩压负荷、夜间舒张压负荷均较治疗前明显降低(P<0.05-P<0.01)。结论非洛地平是平稳有效的抗高血压药物,其降压作用可能是通过降低细胞内胞浆游离钙浓度而发挥作用。     

Leitliniengerechte Differenzialtherapie der Hypertonie

The goal of antihypertensive therapy is to lower blood pressure and, by doing so, to decrease cardiovascular risk. Life style changes and drugs are available for the treatment of hypertensive patients. In order to reach the target blood pressure, most patients with hypertension need drug treatment in addition to life style changes. In all hypertensive patients, the target blood pressure is <140/90 mmHg. In patients with diabetes mellitus, with chronic renal failure as well as in patients with complications of hypertension and, thereby a very high cardiovascular risk, the target blood pressure is <130/80 mmHg. Diuretics, beta-blockers, calcium antagonists, ACE-inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers are the drugs of first choice in the treatment of hypertension. The selection among these drug classes has to consider probable side effects as well as accompanying diseases and complications of hypertension. One should also take into account that most of the beneficial effects of antihypertensive therapy is due to the decrease of blood pressure per se and that the majority of hypertensive patients require the combination of two or more antihypertensive drugs in order to reach the target blood pressure.     

老年高血压患者降压治疗对脑血液循环影响初探

目的探索老年高血压患者长期降压治疗对脑血液循环的影响。方法采用颈部血管超声测定全脑血流量（CBF）技术,前瞻性随访142例老年高血压患者降压治疗前、治疗后1／2年及1年时血压与血流动力学参数。结果老年高血压患者降压治疗后CBF增高（治疗前616．41±107．96mL／min,疗程1／2年时629．73±103．63mL／min,疗程1年时635．69±106．31mL／min,P〈0．05）,SBP降幅大者治疗后CBF高（疗程1／2年时β0．147,95％,CI0．022～0．272,P=0．021,疗程1年时B0．161,95％CI0．018～0．313,P=0．037）,基础DBP高者治疗后CBF下降风险大（疗程1／2年时0R1．117,95％CI1．001～1．247,P=0．048,疗程1年时0R1．213,95％CI1．028～1．473,P=0．024）。结论老年高血压患者积极降压治疗安全且益丁脑血液循环,但对基础DBP高者需加强监测。     

Differentiation and investigation of primary versus secondary hypertension (Cushing reflex)

Hypertensive encephalopathy is a rare complication of severe or malignant hypertension. When treated promptly it is potentially reversible without leaving long-term neurologic damage. It can be difficult to differentiate from cerebrovascular accidents or uremia. Acute elevations of intracranial pressure cause acute elevations of blood pressure--the Cushing reflex. This association is less clear for chronic elevations of intracranial pressure, which could occur with tumors. In patients with hypertensive encephalopathy, there are usually diffuse neurologic signs, evidence of visual upset, variable alterations in conscious level, and often a history of rather gradual onset and more systemic symptoms beforehand. The optic fundi show the characteristic hemorrhages, exudates and papilledema, while the urine usually contains protein red cells and casts. Early treatment is mandatory but need not be by the parenteral route, and any blood pressure reduction should be gradual. Vigorous antihypertensive therapy under such circumstances can lead to problems with relative hypotension and underperfusion of vital organs such as the brain, the heart and the kidneys.     

Efficacy and tolerability of felodipine based antihypertensive therapy in hospitalized patients with hypertension

AIM: To compare efficacy and tolerability of felodipine based antihypertensive therapy with those of standard hospital treatment of hypertension. MATERIAL: Inhospital patients were randomized 1:2 to standard antihypertensive therapy or to therapy which included felodipine (n=50 and 100, 36 and 35% men, mean age 66.0+/-8.4 and 64.3+/-8.1 years, initial blood pressure 162.4+/-9.3/99.3+/-6.4 and 163.2+/-10.3/98.2+/-6.5 mm Hg, respectively). Felodipine was used: (1) as first drug with subsequent addition of other drugs as required; (2) after cessation of previously ineffective therapy; (3) in cases of intolerance to previous therapy, (4) as supplementation to previously insufficiently effective therapy. Results. At discharge in felodipine group 6, 25, 29 and 40% of patients received mono- (felodipine 10 mg/day), 2, 3 and 4 component therapy, respectively. In standard treatment group all patients received combination therapy with 3 (48%) or 4 (52%) drugs. Felodipine group compared with group of standard therapy was characterized by less frequent correction of antihypertensive therapy (0.8+/-0.6 and 2.2+/-0.9, p<0.05), smaller number of drugs used (3.03+/-0.95 and 3.52+/-0.5, p<0.01), more frequently achievement of target blood pressure level (88 and 64%, p=0.0075), less pronounced difference between morning and evening self-measured blood pressure. CONCLUSION: The use of felodipine in hospitalized patients with hypertension allowed achieving target blood pressure with fewer drugs. Felodipine was safe and well tolerated.     

Control of hypertension 5 years after stroke in the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study

Control of blood pressure after stroke is important for reducing the risk of recurrent stroke. We examined the control of hypertension in a community-based population of 5-year stroke survivors. Cases of first-ever stroke from the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study were interviewed at 5 years poststroke. Blood pressure, history of hypertension, and antihypertensive medications were recorded. Individuals were classified as normotensive (blood pressure < 140/90 mm Hg, no history of hypertension, and no antihypertensive medications), controlled hypertensive (blood pressure < 140/90 mm Hg, history of hypertension, and/or taking antihypertensive medications), uncontrolled hypertensive (blood pressure > or = 140/90 mm Hg, history of hypertension, and/or taking antihypertensive medications), or uninformed hypertensive (blood pressure > or = 140/90 mm Hg, no known history of hypertension, and no antihypertensive medications). At 5 years poststroke, 441 (45%) of 978 first-ever stroke cases were alive. Of these, 305 (69%) had complete data on blood pressure, antihypertensive medication use, and history of hypertension. No statistical differences existed between those with or without these data. Eight-two percent were hypertensive; 63% had controlled hypertension, 30% had uncontrolled hypertension, and 7% were unaware that they were hypertensive. Overall, 67% of individuals classified as uncontrolled or uninformed hypertensive subjects were receiving treatment that was insufficient to achieve target blood pressure levels. Uncontrolled hypertensive subjects were more likely to recall receiving advice to manage their hypertension with medication (P < 0.02) and diet (P < 0.09). Although the majority of hypertensive individuals had controlled hypertension at 5 years poststroke, considerable improvement can be made in the control of hypertension after stroke.     

Myths and reality concerning hypertension in peritoneal dialysis patients: results of a multicenter study

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the prevalence of hypertension, the average blood pressure level, the 24 h blood pressure profile, and the efficacy of antihypertensive therapy for a large population of peritoneal dialysis patients.DESIGN: A cross-sectional, observational multicenter study. METHODS: From 504 peritoneal dialysis patients (18% of the Italian peritoneal dialysis population) involved in a multicenter observational study, we selected 414 who had undergone successful ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (i.e. no hours with data absent, >/= 75% successful readings and monitoring duration >/= 24 h). Office blood pressure measurements and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring were performed for each patient on the same day with a standard mercury sphygmomanometer and a SpaceLabs 90207 device, respectively.RESULTS: According to World Health Organization/International Society of Hypertension criteria, 44 peritoneal dialysis patients (10.6%) were normotensive and 370 patients (89.4%) were hypertensive, 304 (82.1%) of whom were being administered antihypertensive therapy. Daytime systolic and diastolic blood pressures were both significantly lower than office systolic and diastolic blood pressures (140.7 +/- 19.7/72.1 +/-11.1 versus 148.3 +/- 23.6/85.6 +/- 12 mmHg; P < 0.001). The difference between office blood pressure and daytime blood pressure was significantly correlated to office blood pressure (P < 0.001 for systolic and P < 0.001 for diastolic). The diurnal blood pressure rhythm evaluated by visual inspection of hourly mean plots was not influenced by sex, age, antihypertensive treatment, and peritoneal dialysis modality. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures exhibited a day-night mean decreases of 8.6 +/- 11.7 and 7.7 +/- 6.9 mmHg, respectively, and daytime blood pressure values were significantly higher than night-time ones (P < 0.001). Two hundred and twenty patients (53.1%) were nondippers according to O'Brien's criteria, 247 patients (59.7%) were nondippers according to Verdecchia's criteria, and 269 patients (65.0%) were nondippers according to Staessen's criteria. Only 39 patients (9.4%) had a reversed circadian rhythm. The day-night differences of systolic and diastolic blood pressures were in a unimodal distribution. Among hypertensive patients not being administered antihypertensive therapy, only six patients ( five women and one man) had white-coat hypertension. Among hypertensive patients being administered antihypertensive therapy, 235 patients (77.3%) had 24 h blood pressure loads > 30%.CONCLUSION: There is a high prevalence of hypertension among peritoneal dialysis patients. White-coat hypertension is very rare in this population. Despite the extensive use of antihypertensive therapy, control of blood pressure is maintained in a large number of our peritoneal dialysis patients. Any classification of patients into dipers and nondippers must be interpreted cautiously.     

Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on ambulatory blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea

OBJECTIVES: Previous reports on the effects of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy for obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) on blood pressure has shown contradictory results. Accordingly, we have investigated the effects of CPAP on blood pressure and on the potential reversal of the diagnosis of hypertension in patients with OSA evaluated repeatedly by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. METHODS: We studied 122 patients (104 men and 18 women), 55.1+/-10.5 years of age, with diagnosis of OSA corroborated by overnight polysomnography at the clinic. Among those patients, 83 were treated with CPAP after their first evaluation, while 39 remained without CPAP for the duration of the trial. Blood pressure was measured by ambulatory monitoring at 20-min intervals during the day and at 30-min intervals at night for 48 consecutive hours, at baseline and after 2 and 4 months of intervention. RESULTS: There was a small, but not statistically significant, reduction in ambulatory blood pressure in patients treated with CPAP (0.7 and 1.5 mmHg in 24-h mean of systolic and diastolic blood pressure after 2 months of therapy; 2.0 and 2.3 mmHg after 4 months; P>0.239). The blood pressure reduction was very similar in patients with OSA followed for 4 months without CPAP (1.9 and 2.2 mmHg in 24-h mean of systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively; P=0.543). We found a high (77%) prevalence of hypertension among the patients participating in this study, although only 37% were receiving antihypertensive medication at the time of recruitment. The prevalence of hypertension was slightly but not significantly reduced to just 74% after 4 months of treatment with CPAP. CONCLUSIONS: The small reduction in blood pressure for consecutive profiles of ambulatory monitoring can probably be explained by the documented 'ABPM pressor effect' on patients using the ambulatory device for the first time. The high prevalence of hypertension among patients with OSA is not significantly reduced by treatment with CPAP. These results suggest that patients with OSA should always be properly evaluated for diagnosis of hypertension, and provided, if needed, with antihypertensive treatment apart from the recommended CPAP.     

Role of yoga in management of essential hypertension

Twenty five patients of essential hypertension were studied. Of these, 20 patients were not given any antihypertensive drug treatment (Group A); other 5 had to be put on antihypertensive drugs before including them in the study (Group B). These patients were demonstrated "Shavasana" and trained to perform it correctly. Shavasana therapy was continued for six months. There was a statistically significant fall in both mean systolic and diastolic pressure of both groups. Further, there was a significant reduction in doses of antihypertensive drugs, being given to patients of group B. In 65% patients of group A, blood pressure could be controlled with Shavasana only and no drug was needed in them at all. Blood pressure rose significantly to pre-Shavasana levels in patients who left practising yoga. Thus, with use of yoga (Shavasana) in therapy of hypertension, requirement of antihypertensive drugs may be significantly decreased and in some cases may be totally dispensed with and it may be an useful adjunct in treatment of hypertension.     

Niere und Hypertonie

In patients with chronic kidney disease elevated blood pressure is a common finding, but primary hypertension can also damage healthy kidneys. Renal outcome is strictly dependent on blood pressure, no matter whether the kidneys are cause or consequence of hypertension. Furthermore, hypertension and kidney disease are strong cardiovascular risk factors. In every patient diagnosed with hypertension glomerular filtration rate has to be checked. Proteinuria and structural abnormalities of the kidneys should be ruled out. Patients with a decreased glomerular filtration rate, proteinuria or pathologic ultrasound should be seen by a nephrologist. A strict antihypertensive therapy (blood pressure <130/80 mmHg) can substantially improve the prognosis of hypertensive renal patients. In patients with kidney damage, inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-system are preferred. To avoid adverse events a close monitoring of antihypertensive therapy is warranted.     

我国部分地区高血压登记调查及治疗达标研究

目的通过对我国不同地区高血压人群的基线资料调查,了解我国高血压患者相关危险因素、靶器官损害及并存疾病（心、脑、糖尿病及。肾病）的发生率以及不同危险分层和不同高血压类型的分布状态,并观察4周、12周经药物治疗后总体人群和不同危险分层及不同高血压类型患者的高血压治疗达标情况。方法前瞻性高血压基线调查,然后由医师根据日常医疗实践常规,自主选用不同药物及剂量进行4周、12周高血压治疗达标观察。共观察26655例。结果26655例患者中相关危险因素中缺乏体力活动、吸烟、体重指数增高、血脂紊乱分别占52．2％、34．4％、31．8％、24．5％;靶器官损害及伴随疾病中微量白蛋白尿、左室肥厚、临床诊断冠心病及糖尿病分别占21．0％、23．6％、20．1％、26．7％;平均收缩压（158±14）mmHg（1mmHg=0．133kPa）,舒张压（94±11）mmHg,其中1、2、3级高血压分别为42．1％、43．2％、15．6％;危险分层中低危、中危、高危及重度高危分别为3．2％、22．2％、21．1％及53．3％;男性平均危险程度高于女性;高血压类型以混合性高血压最多,占77．2％,单纯收缩及舒张性高血压分别为20．4％、2．4％。4周、12周药物治疗达标率分别为50．2％及56．7％。随危险分层增高,达标率依次下降。糖尿病、肾病患者达标率显著低于平均水平。收缩压达标率显著低于舒张压。不论4周或12周,达标患者平均每人用药均在1．5种以上,60％患者需用2种或3种药物才能治疗达标。结论国人高血压合并相关危险因素、靶器官损害及伴同疾病发生率高,除积极降压达标外,加强综合治疗十分重要。在日常医疗模式下,通过加强对患者的登记随访、联合用药及督促指导在毪国宴瑚高向乐榨制率的昂著椹高县切空可行的．     

Rapid reduction of severe asymptomatic hypertension. A prospective, controlled trial

Rapid reduction of severe asymptomatic hypertension with orally administered antihypertensive medication has become a common emergency department practice. To determine if antihypertensive loading prior to initiation of maintenance therapy improved or hastened blood pressure control, 64 asymptomatic patients with severe hypertension were randomized to treatment with (1) hourly doses of clonidine hydrochloride followed by maintenance therapy (group 1); (2) an initial dose of clonidine followed by hourly placebo and subsequent maintenance therapy (group 2); or (3) maintenance therapy without prior loading (group 3). There was no difference between groups 1 and 2 in the time required to achieve acceptable blood pressure control during loading therapy, nor was there a difference at 24 hours in pressure reduction between groups 1,2, or 3. Further follow-up in 44 of these patients at 1 week demonstrated adequate control of systemic blood pressure in all groups, but no difference between groups. In view of the small but reported risk of antihypertensive loading and the burden and expense of prolonged emergency department therapy, these results suggest that the common practice of acute oral antihypertensive loading to treat severe, asymptomatic hypertension should be reconsidered.     

Hydrochlorothiazide Versus Calcium Channel Blockers: What is the Best Add-on to a Renin-Angiotensin System Blocker for Treating Hypertension in Patients with Renal Disease?

Hypertension remains an important problem that increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and is a leading cause of mortality worldwide. Achieving long-term control of arterial hypertension, which has an estimated prevalence of 28% in the US adult population, would translate into a significant reduction in cardiovascular events. Specific causes can be identified and treated for certain forms of secondary hypertension, but often it is multifactorial. Therefore, it makes sense to attain blood pressure control by addressing more than one pressor mechanism. Several clinical studies have demonstrated that combination antihypertensive therapy is more effective than monotherapy, and a review of currently published data suggests that approximately 75% of hypertensive individuals will require some form of combination therapy to achieve target blood pressure (BP) goals. To this end, the Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of Blood Pressure (JNC 7) has recommended that antihypertensive therapy should start with two drugs when a patient presents with systolic blood pressure (SBP) more than 20 mm Hg above target levels, diastolic blood pressure (DBP) more than 10 mm Hg above target levels, or both. This review attempts to analyze the current evidence in published medical literature to answer the question of whether hydrochlorothiazide or a calcium channel blocker is a better add-on to a renin-angiotensin system blocker for treating hypertension in patients with renal disease.