Extensive training in a maze task reduces neurogenesis in the adult rat dentate gyrus probably as a result of stress

It has recently been shown that hippocampal neurogenesis can be modulated either directly or indirectly by ascending cholinergic inputs from the basal forebrain. In the present work, we sought to address whether extended training in a spatial navigation task would affect hippocampal neurogenesis in the presence of a severe and selective cholinergic depletion. Young female rats received stereotaxic injections of the immunotoxin 192 IgG-saporin into the basal forebrain nuclei and/or the cerebellar cortex. Starting from 4 to 5 weeks post-lesion, and for the subsequent 2 weeks, the animals were trained on paradigms of reference and working memory in the water maze and received single daily i.p. injections of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) at the end of each testing session. In line with previous observations, a dramatic 80% decrease in neuron proliferation was seen in the dentate gyrus of lesioned animals, as compared to vehicle-injected or intact controls. Interestingly, however, rats subjected to maze training over 2 weeks, irrespective of their learning success, exhibited significantly fewer newborn neurons than matched controls with no maze exposure. Thus, at least for the type of task used here, which has previously been shown to impose a certain degree of stress, extended training and learning does not appear to affect proliferation in the dentate gyrus.     

miR-30c通过调节海马神经发生对APP/PS1转基因小鼠学习记忆能力的影响*

目的：探讨miR-30c 通过调控海马神经发生对APP/PS1 转基因小鼠的学习记忆的影响。方法：用免疫荧光 检测Ki67 的表达和Morris 行为学检测APP/PS1 转基因小鼠海马的神经发生及学习记忆能力,并通过脑立体定位 技术显微注射miR-30c 过表达和miR-30c 敲减慢病毒载体以干扰海马齿状回区域的神经发生,检测海马神经发生 对学习记忆的影响。结果：APP/PS1 转基因小鼠的海马神经发生和学习记忆能力明显低于野生小鼠。然而,当 APP/PS1 转基因小鼠海马的miR-30c 过表达后,海马神经发生明显增加（14.2 倍）;相反,当海马miR-30c 敲减后, 海马神经发生明显降低（0.25 倍）,并且Morris 行为学结果显示,miR-30c 敲减后小鼠的学习记忆能力明显降低, 而miR-30c 过表达后小鼠的学习记忆能力明显增强。结论：miR-30c 可能通过调控海马神经发生影响学习记忆功能, 提示miR-30c 可作为干预阿尔茨海默症神经发生与学习记忆能力的潜在靶点。     

Working memory training decreases hippocampal neurogenesis

The relationship between adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition appears more complex than suggested by early reports. We aimed to determine if the duration and task demands of spatial memory training differentially affect hippocampal neurogenesis. Adult male rats were trained in the Morris water maze in a reference memory task for 4 days, or alternatively working memory for either 4 or 14 days. Four days of maze training did not impact neurogenesis regardless of whether reference or working memory paradigms were used. Interestingly, 2 weeks of working memory training using a hidden platform resulted in fewer newborn hippocampal neurons compared with controls that received either cue training or no maze exposure. Stress is a well-established negative regulator of hippocampal neurogenesis. We found that maze training in general, and a working memory task in particular, increased levels of circulating corticosterone after 4 days of training. Our study indicates that working memory training over a prolonged period of time reduces neurogenesis, and this reduction may partially be mediated by increased stress.     

A free-radical scavenger protects the neural progenitor cells in the dentate subgranular zone of the hippocampus from cell death after X-irradiation

It has been elucidated that cognitive dysfunction following cranial radiotherapy might be linked to the oxidative stress-induced impairment of hippocampal neurogenesis that is mediated by proliferating neural stem or progenitor cells. The novel free-radical scavenger edaravone (3-methyl-1-phenyl-2-pyrazolin-5-one) has been clinically used to reduce neuronal damage following ischemic stroke. Previously, we reported that the free-radical scavenger, edaravone, which is currently used to treat patients with brain ischemia, protected cultured human neural stem cells (NSCs) from radiation-induced cell death; the protective effect was observed more significantly in NSCs than in brain tumor cells. Here, in animal models, we demonstrate that edaravone protects neurons in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus from cell death after irradiation. Moreover, edaravone protected spatial memory retention deficits as determined by Morris water maze tests. Our study may shed some light on the beneficial effects of free-radical scavengers in impaired neurogenesis following cranial radiation therapy.     

Ⅰ型糖尿病脑病模型大鼠空间学习记忆以及海马齿状回细胞凋亡和Bax与Bcl-2蛋白表达的变化

目的探讨1型糖尿病脑病海马齿状回细胞凋亡、Bax与Bcl-2蛋白表达、空间学习记忆之间的相互关系。方法通过腹腔注射链脲佐菌素(溶于柠檬酸缓冲液)建立1型糖尿病脑病模型大鼠,通过腹腔注射柠檬酸缓冲液建立载体模型大鼠。应用Morris水迷宫、TUNEL技术、Bax与Bcl-2免疫组化方法,观察各组大鼠海马齿状回颗粒下区(SGZ)、颗粒细胞层(GCL)的Bax、Bcl-2、TUNEL阳性细胞和空间学习记忆的变化。结果糖尿病脑病组大鼠的SGZ、GCL的Bax阳性细胞数、TUNEL阳性细胞数、水迷宫的逃避潜伏期和游泳距离均明显高于载体模型组或正常对照组大鼠的对应指标(P<0.01);而糖尿病脑病组大鼠的Bcl-2阳性细胞数则明显低于载体模型组或正常对照组大鼠(P<0.01),但以上各组3类阳性细胞的形态和分布却均无明显差异。结论体内长期缺乏胰岛素可打破凋亡基因Bax与抗凋亡基因Bcl-2的蛋白表达水平之间原有的正常动态平衡状态,致使海马齿状回的细胞倾向于多发生细胞凋亡事件,这可能是引发1型糖尿病脑病神经发生障碍及空间学习记忆异常的一个因素。     

香烟烟雾暴露对未成年小鼠齿状回神经发生和小胶质细胞的影响

为探讨香烟烟雾暴露(cigarette smoking exposure,CSE)对未成年小鼠的神经发生及学习记忆的影响,本研究用亲和组织化学方法,以5-溴脱氧尿苷(5-bromodeoxyuridine,BrdU)和西非单叶豆同工凝集素-B4(Bandeirae SimplicifoliaIsolectin-B4,BSI-B4)分别标记新生细胞和小胶质细胞(microglia,MG),观察了CSE小鼠齿状回内的神经发生及MG数目的变化,并通过Morris水迷宫训练测验其空间学习能力。结果显示:CSE下小鼠齿状回内的神经发生降低,MG数目显著减少;而在水迷宫的学习中,CSE组的逃避潜伏期亦明显长于对照组(P<0.05)。上述结果表明CSE损害了未成年小鼠齿状回内的神经发生,抑制了MG的激活,同时小鼠的空间学习能力与神经发生及激活的MG数量平行变化。此结果提示CSE造成的学习能力降低可能与齿状回神经发生及MG减少有关。     

Septo-temporal gradients of neurogenesis and activity in 13-month-old rats

Recent studies suggest that hippocampal function is partially dissociable along its septo-temporal axis: the septal hippocampus is more critical for spatial processing, while the temporal hippocampus may be more important for non-spatial-related behavior. In young adults, water maze training specifically activates new neurons in the temporal hippocampus, but it is unknown whether subregional differences are maintained in older animals, which have reduced neurogenesis levels. We therefore examined gradients of activity-related Fos expression and neurogenesis in 13-month-old rats and found that neurogenesis occurs relatively evenly throughout the dentate gyrus. Water maze experience significantly increased Fos expression in the suprapyramidal blade and Fos was highest in the septal pole of the dentate gyrus whether the animal learned a platform location, swam in the absence of a platform or remained in their cage. No Fos+ young neurons were found using typical markers of immature neurons. However, Fos expression in the subgranular zone, where adult-born neurons predominate, was disproportionally high in the temporal dentate gyrus. These findings indicate that adult-born neurons in the temporal hippocampus are preferentially activated compared with older neurons.     

Enhancement of dentate gyrus neurogenesis, dendritic and synaptic plasticity and memory by a neurotrophic peptide

Pharmacological enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis is a therapeutic approach for improvement of cognition in learning and memory disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Here we report the development of an 11-mer peptide that we designed based on a biologically active region of the ciliary neurotrophic factor. This peptide, Peptide 6, induced proliferation and increased survival and maturation of neural progenitor cells into neurons in the dentate gyrus of normal adult C57BL6 mice. Furthermore, Peptide 6 increased the MAP2 and synaptophysin immunoreactivity in the dentate gyrus. Thirty-day treatment of the mice with a slow release bolus of the peptide implanted subcutaneously improved reference memory of the mice in Morris water maze. Peptide 6 has a plasma half life of over 6 h, is blood-brain barrier permeable, and acts by competitively inhibiting the leukemia inhibitory factor signaling. The fact that Peptide 6 is both neurogenic and neurotrophic and that this peptide is effective when given peripherally, demonstrates its potential for prevention and treatment of learning and memory disorders.     

Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus

Exposure to an enriched environment increases neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult rodents. Environmental enrichment, however, typically consists of many components, such as expanded learning opportunities, increased social interaction, more physical activity and larger housing. We attempted to separate components by assigning adult mice to various conditions: water-maze learning (learner), swim-time-yoked control (swimmer), voluntary wheel running (runner), and enriched (enriched) and standard housing (control) groups. Neither maze training nor yoked swimming had any effect on bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive cell number. However, running doubled the number of surviving newborn cells, in amounts similar to enrichment conditions. Our findings demonstrate that voluntary exercise is sufficient for enhanced neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus.     

1型糖尿病脑病大鼠空间学习记忆与海马齿状回神经干细胞增殖的观察

目的揭示1型糖尿病继发性脑病变(糖尿病脑病)的发生与海马齿状回颗粒下区(SGZ)神经干细胞增殖之间的关系。方法应用链脲佐菌素(溶解于柠檬酸缓冲液中)腹腔注射,将成年雄性Wistar大鼠建立成1型糖尿病脑病模型;将用柠檬酸缓冲液腹腔注射的大鼠或正常大鼠分别作为载体模型组或正常对照组。在建立模型成功后的60d,用Morris水迷宫和5-溴脱氧尿嘧啶(BrdU,一种神经干细胞合成DNA的标记物)免疫组化方法,观察各组大鼠空间学习记忆能力以及SGZ神经干细胞(BrdU阳性细胞)的变化。结果1型糖尿病脑病模型大鼠的逃避潜伏期和游泳距离均较载体模型组或正常对照组大鼠明显延长(P<0.01);而且该脑病组大鼠SGZ的BrdU阳性细胞数也明显低于载体模型组或正常对照组大鼠(P<0.01)。结论个体内长期缺乏胰岛素可导致SGZ神经干细胞增殖出现障碍,从而引发空间学习记忆能力下降,这可能是诱发1型糖尿病脑病的一个因素。     

Hippocampal neuron and synaptophysin-positive bouton number in aging C57BL/6 mice

A loss of hippocampal neurons and synapses had been considered a hallmark of normal aging and, furthermore, to be a substrate of age-related learning and memory deficits. Recent stereological studies in humans have shown that only a relatively minor neuron loss occurs with aging and that this loss is restricted to specific brain regions, including hippocampal subregions. Here, we investigate these age-related changes in C57BL/6J mice, one of the most commonly used laboratory mouse strains. Twenty-five mice (groups at 2, 14, and 28–31 months of age) were assessed for Morris water-maze performance, and modern stereological techniques were used to estimate total neuron and synaptophysin-positive bouton number in hippocampal subregions at the light microscopic level. Results revealed that performance in the water maze was largely maintained with aging. No age-related decline was observed in number of dentate gyrus granule cells or CA1 pyramidal cells. In addition, no age-related change in number of synaptophysin-positive boutons was observed in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus or CA1 region of hippocampus. We observed a significant correlation between dentate gyrus synaptophysin-positive bouton number and water-maze performance. These results demonstrate that C57BL/6J mice do not exhibit major age-related deficits in spatial learning or hippocampal structure, providing a baseline for further study of mouse brain aging.     

Effects of voluntary physical exercise on adult hippocampal neurogenesis and behavior of Ts65Dn mice,a model of Down syndrome

The Ts65Dn (TS) mouse is the most widely used model of Down syndrome (DS). This mouse shares many phenotypic characteristics with the human condition including cognitive and neuromorphological alterations. In this study the effects of physical exercise on hippocampal neurogenesis and behavior in TS mice were assessed. 10–12 month-old male TS and control (CO) mice were submitted to voluntary physical exercise for 7 weeks and the effects of this protocol on hippocampal morphology, neurogenesis and apoptosis were evaluated. Physical exercise improved performance in the acquisition sessions of the Morris water maze in TS but not in CO mice. Conversely, it did not have any effect on anxiety or depressive behavior in TS mice but it did reduce the cognitive components of anxiety in CO mice. TS mice presented a reduced dentate gyrus (DG) volume, subgranular zone area and number of granule neurons. Hippocampal neurogenesis was reduced in TS mice as shown by the reduced number of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) positive cells. Voluntary physical exercise did not rescue these alterations in TS mice but it did increase the number of doublecortin (DCX)-and phospho histone 3 (PH3)-positive neurons in CO mice. It is concluded that physical exercise produced a modest anxiolytic effect in CO mice and that this was accompanied by an increased number of immature cells in the hippocampal DG. On the other hand, voluntary physical exercise exerted a positive effect on TS mice learning of the platform position in the Morris water maze that seems to be mediated by a neurogenesis-independent mechanism.     

Hippocampal heterogeneity in spatial memory revealed by cytochrome oxidase

The oxidative metabolism was assessed in the septal, intermediate and temporal hippocampus in Wistar rats that were trained following a working memory schedule in the Morris water maze. The cytochrome oxidase histochemistry was measured at 90 min, 6, 24 and 48 h post-training. We found an increase in the septal dentate gyrus at 90 min, at 6 h the increase was also found in CA3 and CA1 regions and returned to basal levels at 24 h. In contrast, the intermediate region showed lower increase, limited to the dentate gyrus and CA3 at 24 h post-training. No changes were found in the temporal hippocampus. These findings suggest that septal and intermediate hippocampal zones participate in this spatial learning and contribute at different moments to process this information.     

Young hippocampal neurons are critical for recent and remote spatial memory in adult mice

New granule cells are continuously generated throughout adulthood in the mammalian hippocampus. These newly generated neurons become functionally integrated into existing hippocampal neuronal networks, such as those that support retrieval of remote spatial memory. Here, we sought to examine whether the contribution of newly born neurons depends on the type of learning and memory task in mice. To do so, we reduced neurogenesis with a cytostatic agent and examined whether depletion of young hippocampal neurons affects learning and/or memory in two hippocampal-dependent tasks (spatial navigation in the Morris water maze and object location test) and two hippocampal-independent tasks (cued navigation in the Morris water maze and novel object recognition). Double immunohistofluorescent labeling of the birth dating marker 5-bromo-2'deoxyuridine (BrdU) together with NeuN, a neuron specific marker, was employed to quantify reduction of hippocampal neurogenesis. We found that depletion of young adult-generated neurons alters recent and remote memory in spatial tasks but spares non-spatial tasks. Our findings provide additional evidence that generation of new cells in the adult brain is crucial for hippocampal-dependent cognitive functions.     

褪黑素对1型糖尿病脑病大鼠学习记忆和海马齿状回细胞凋亡及Bax与Bcl-2蛋白表达的影响

目的探讨褪黑素治疗对1型糖尿病脑病空间学习忆忆、海马齿状回细胞凋亡以及凋亡相关基因Bax与Bcl-2蛋白表达的影响。方法将成年健康雄性Wistar大鼠随机分成4组(每组均为12只大鼠):1型糖尿病脑病组、载体模型治疗组、褪黑素治疗组、正常对照组。通过腹腔注射链脲佐菌素(55mg/kg,溶于柠檬酸缓冲液中),建立1型糖尿病脑病模型;通过对该脑病模型大鼠腹腔注射褪黑素(200μg/kg,溶解于乙醇生理盐水中),建立褪黑素治疗模型;分别通过对大鼠腹腔注射等体积的柠檬酸缓冲液、乙醇生理盐水,建立载体治疗模型;但未对正常对照组大鼠进行过任何处理。应用Morris水迷宫、Bax、Bcl-2、TUNEL反应技术,观察各组大鼠空间学习记忆、海马齿状回的颗粒下区(SGZ)和颗粒细胞层(GCL)的细胞凋亡及Bax与Bcl-2基因的蛋白表达程度。结果1型糖尿病脑病大鼠在水迷宫的逃避潜伏期和游泳距离均比其它各组的对应指标明显延长(P<0.01),该脑病组大鼠海马齿伏回的SGZ和GCL的Bax阳性细胞数、TUNEL阳性细胞数也均比其它各组的对应指标明显升高(P<0.01),但该脑病组SGZ和GCL的Bcl-2阳性细胞数则明显低于其它各组的相应指标(P<0.01)。应用褪黑素治疗该脑病组大鼠30d后,可将1型糖尿病脑病组大鼠的以上各项指标逆转至接近正常水平(P<0.01)。结论褪黑素治疗不仅可纠正因1型糖尿病脑病大鼠海马齿状回凋亡基因Bax和抗凋亡基因Bcl-2蛋白质表达水平比例异常而引发的细胞凋亡,还可改善该脑病的空间学习记忆障碍,提示褪黑素在防治该脑病中具有一定的功效。     

学习记忆能力与齿状回神经干细胞增殖的关系研究

本研究旨在探讨学习记忆能力与齿状回神经干细胞增殖之间的关系。将成年雄性昆明小鼠随机分为水迷宫训练组和对照组,水迷宫训练组,又根据小鼠找到平台时间的长短,分为学习记忆能力强和学习记忆能力较弱二组。在水迷宫训练后的第1、7、14d,分别检测三组小鼠齿状回神经干细胞的增殖情况。结果表明,学习能力弱的小鼠,其齿状回神经干细胞增殖的数目与对照组相比较,无显著性差异;而学习记忆能力较强的小鼠,其齿状回神经干细胞增殖的数目显著多于学习记忆能力较弱及对照组的小鼠,并且增殖细胞的存活时间也比学习记忆能力较弱的小鼠长。结果提示,水迷宫训练并不能使所有的个体脑内神经干细胞增多,记忆能力的强弱与齿状回的神经干细胞增殖之间呈正相关。     

Immune cells contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood

Neurogenesis is known to take place in the adult brain. This work identifies T lymphocytes and microglia as being important to the maintenance of hippocampal neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood. Hippocampal neurogenesis induced by an enriched environment was associated with the recruitment of T cells and the activation of microglia. In immune-deficient mice, hippocampal neurogenesis was markedly impaired and could not be enhanced by environmental enrichment, but was restored and boosted by T cells recognizing a specific CNS antigen. CNS-specific T cells were also found to be required for spatial learning and memory and for the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the dentate gyrus, implying that a common immune-associated mechanism underlies different aspects of hippocampal plasticity and cell renewal in the adult brain.     

Effect of long-lasting serotonin depletion on environmental enrichment-induced neurogenesis in adult rat hippocampus and spatial learning

The dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation produces new neurons throughout adulthood in mammalian species. Several experimental statuses and factors regulating to neurogenesis have been identified in the adult dentate gyrus. For example, exposure to an enriched environment enhances neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus and improves hippocampus-dependent spatial learning. Furthermore, serotonin is known to influence adult neurogenesis, and learning and memory. However, the effects of long-lasting depletion of serotonin over the developing period on neurogenesis have not been investigated. Thus, we examined the influence of long-lasting serotonin depletion on environmental enrichment-induced neurogenesis and spatial memory performance. As reported previously, environmental enrichment significantly increased new neurons in the dentate gyrus. However, there was no improvement of the spatial learning test in adult rats in standard and in environmental enrichment housings. Intracisternal administration of the serotonergic neurotoxin, 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine, on postnatal day 3 apparently reduced serotonin content in the adult hippocampus without regeneration. This experimental depletion of serotonin in the hippocampus of rats housed in an enriched environment had no effect on spatial memory performance, but produced significant decreases in the number of bromodeoxyuridine-labeled new cells in the dentate gyrus. These findings indicate that newly generated cells stimulated by environmental enrichment are not critical for improvements in hippocampus-dependent learning. Furthermore, numbers of bromodeoxyuridine-labeled cells in the dentate gyrus of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine-injected rats did not differ between 1 day and 4 weeks after bromodeoxyuridine injection. These data suggest that survival of newly generated dentate gyrus cells remains relatively constant under long-lasting serotonin depletion.     

Post-weaning mice fed exclusively milk have deficits in induction of long-term depression in the CA1 hippocampal region and spatial learning and memory

Previously, we have found that post-weaning mice fed exclusively milk display low-frequency exploratory behavior compared to mice fed a food pellet diet (Ishii et al., 2005a). Because cognitive functions play a key role in animal exploration, in the present study we examined the effect of an exclusively milk formula diet on spatial learning and memory in a water maze and also on induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapse in the hippocampus. Exclusively milk-fed mice exhibited slower learning and memory deficits in hidden water maze tests as compared with pellet-fed mice. Moreover, milk-fed mice showed a significant inhibition of LTD but a normal induction of LTP. Despite these functional deficits, adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, which has been proposed to have a causal relationship to spatial memory, was stimulated in milk-fed mice. These result suggest that an exclusively milk formula diet after weaning leads to a stimulation of hippocampal neurogenesis but causes deficits in the induction of LTD in the CA1 hippocampal region and impairment of spatial learning and memory.