Association of elevated serum ferritin levels and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in pregnant women: The Camden study

OBJECTIVE- We examined the influence of a moderately elevated serum ferritin level at entry to care on the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and a possible mechanism (increased iron stores versus inflammation). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS- In a prospective observational study with 1,456 healthy pregnant women in Camden, New Jersey, serum ferritin and anthropometric measurements were determined. Serum C-reactive protein (CRP) concentration was measured in a nested case-control study of 172 subjects. RESULTS- Women who developed GDM had a higher concentration of serum ferritin than women who did not develop GDM (P < 0.001). Elevated serum ferritin level (highest quintile) was significantly and positively correlated with prepregnant BMI and skinfold measurements. Women in the highest quintile of serum ferritin had a twofold increased risk of developing GDM adjusted for several known risk factors (adjusted odds ratio, 2.02 [95% CI 1.04-3.92], P < 0.05). Similar results were obtained with a nested case-control study, in which women in the highest tertile of serum ferritin (2.35 [1.06-5.22], P < 0.05) or CRP (2.67 [1.16-6.17], P < 0.001) had a greater than twofold increased risk of GDM. However, these effects were modified and became nonstatistically significant after additional adjustment for prepregnant BMI. CONCLUSIONS- Elevated serum ferritin concentrations early in gestation are associated with an increased risk of GDM. The association, at least in part, is mediated by the maternal fat mass and obesity. These data suggest a possible link between elevated serum ferritin and low-grade inflammation.     

Pregravid Liver Enzyme Levels and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus During a Subsequent Pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

Liver enzymes are independent predictors of type 2 diabetes. Although liver fat content correlates with features of insulin resistance, a risk factor for developing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), the relationship between liver enzymes and GDM is unclear. The objective of this study was to assess whether pregravid liver enzyme levels are associated with subsequent risk of GDM.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

A nested case-control study was conducted among women who participated in the Kaiser Permanente Northern California multiphasic health checkup (1984–1996) and had a subsequent pregnancy (1984–2009). Case patients were 256 women who developed GDM. Two control subjects were selected for each case patient and matched for year of blood draw, age at examination, age at pregnancy, and number of intervening pregnancies.

RESULTS

Being in the highest quartile versus the lowest quartile of γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT) levels was associated with a twofold increased risk of subsequent GDM (odds ratio 1.97 [95% CI 1.14–3.42]), after adjusting for race/ethnicity, prepregnancy BMI, family history of diabetes, and alcohol use. This result was attenuated after adjusting for homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), fasting status, and rate of gestational weight gain. There was significant interaction between GGT and HOMA-IR; the association with GGT was found among women in the highest tertile of HOMA-IR. Aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase were not associated with increased GDM risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Pregravid GGT level, but not alanine aminotransferase or aspartate aminotransferase level, predicted the subsequent risk of GDM. Markers of liver fat accumulation, such as GGT level, are present years before pregnancy and may help to identify women at increased risk for subsequent GDM.     

Prepregnancy SHBG Concentrations and Risk for Subsequently Developing Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

OBJECTIVE

Lower levels of sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG) have been associated with increased risk of diabetes among postmenopausal women; however, it is unclear whether they are associated with glucose intolerance in younger women. We examined whether SHBG concentrations, measured before pregnancy, are associated with risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This was a nested case-control study among women who participated in the Kaiser Permanente Northern California Multiphasic Health Check-up examination (1984–1996) and had a subsequent pregnancy (1984–2009). Eligible women were free of recognized diabetes. Case patients were 256 women in whom GDM developed. Two control subjects were selected for each case patient and were matched for year of blood draw, age at examination, age at pregnancy, and number of intervening pregnancies.

RESULTS

Compared with the highest quartile of SHBG concentrations, the odds of GDM increased with decreasing quartile (odds ratio 1.06 [95% CI 0.44–2.52]; 2.33 [1.07–5.09]; 4.06 [1.90–8.65]; P for trend < 0.001), after adjusting for family history of diabetes, prepregnancy BMI, race/ethnicity, alcohol use, prepregnancy weight changes, and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance. Having SHBG levels below the median (<64.5 nmol/L) and a BMI ≥25.0 kg/m² was associated with fivefold increased odds of GDM compared with normal-weight women with SHBG levels at or above the median (5.34 [3.00–9.49]).

CONCLUSIONS

Low prepregnancy SHBG concentrations were associated with increased risk of GDM and might be useful in identifying women at risk for GDM for early prevention strategies.     

Population health significance of gestational diabetes

OBJECTIVE: Women who have had gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have a high risk of subsequently developing diabetes. However, the contribution of GDM toward the total population of people with diabetes, or its population health impact, has not been examined. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the population health significance of GDM by estimating the proportion of cases of diabetes in women that would have been preceded by a pregnancy complicated by GDM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A MEDLINE search was conducted to identify controlled follow-up studies of women with GDM. Meta-analysis of these studies, using the Mantel-Haenszel method for pooling relative risks (RRs), provided an overall RR for the development of diabetes in women with GDM versus control women who had been pregnant without GDM. Recent large studies examining the prevalence of GDM were also reviewed. This enabled the calculation of the population-attributable risk (PAR) for these populations. In this case, the PAR represents the proportion of cases of diabetes among parous women that were associated with previous GDM. RESULTS: From six controlled follow-up studies, the overall RR for developing diabetes after GDM was calculated to be 6.0 (95% CI 4.1-8.8). Applying this to the studies of GDM prevalence, the PAR for GDM ranged from 0.10 to 0.31 (i.e., 10-31% of parous women with diabetes would have experienced a GDM pregnancy earlier). CONCLUSIONS: In some populations, women who have had GDM comprise a substantial proportion of subjects who ultimately develop diabetes. Effective measures to prevent women with GDM from progressing to frank diabetes could therefore have a significant population health impact.     

Do obesity and low levels of physical activity increase the risk for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus among women with prior gestational diabetes in rural China?

Moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) and obesity play important roles in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) among women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Yet, how MVPA affects the risk of developing T2DM among women with prior GDM across the different categories of obesity indicators is unclear. This study aimed to describe the levels of postpartum abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT), obesity indicators (body mass index [BMI] and waist circumference [WC]), and MVPA and to explore the independent effect and joint effect of MVPA and obesity indicators (BMI and WC) on the risk for developing AGT among women with prior GDM in rural China. A total of 425 women with prior GDM were recruited from two county-level hospitals in Western and Eastern Hunan, China. Data were collected with self-reported measurements on sociodemographics and clinical factors as well as postpartum weight-related behaviors (physical activity and dietary intake). The 75-g oral glucose tolerance test, weight, height, and WC were measured on site. Binary logistic regression models and multiplitive interaction models were used to explore the independent and joint associations of BMI and MVPA as well as WC and MVPA on AGT, respectively. One-fifth (20.9%) of the sample women had AGT. The obesity indicators were significantly associated with an increased risk of postpartum AGT, but MVPA was not. In joint effect analyses, larger WC and insufficient MVPA were not significantly associated with increased risk of AGT compared with normal WC and sufficient MVPA (mutually adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.43; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.46–4.43; p > .05). In joint effect analyses of MVPA and BMI, the mutually adjusted OR for developing AGT in women who were obese and had insufficient MVPA was 4.49 (95% CI, 1.35–14.92; p < .05) compared with normal weight and sufficient MVPA. Adequate weight management and increased MVPA are warranted for Chinese women with prior GDM to prevent T2DM.     

Elevated C-reactive protein is a risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes in Japanese Americans

OBJECTIVE: Increasing evidence from a cohort of Caucasians recently suggests that an elevated level of C-reactive protein (CRP) is associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. However, Japanese subjects are skewed to lower CRP concentrations than westerners. Therefore, the effect of CRP on the development of type 2 diabetes among Japanese is unclear. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We examined 396 male and 551 female nondiabetic Japanese Americans who underwent a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (GTT) and were then followed for an average of 6.5 years. We investigated whether elevated serum CRP level is a risk factor in the development of type 2 diabetes among these subjects. RESULTS: Subjects with a high CRP level showed a significantly higher incidence of type 2 diabetes compared with subjects with a low level among both men (P = 0.028) and women (P = 0.004) in a log-rank test. In a Cox proportional hazards model dividing quartiles of CRP, the hazard ratios for diabetes development in the highest versus lowest quartile of CRP levels were 2.84 (95% CI 1.09-7.39) among men and 3.11 (1.25-7.75) among women after adjustment for age, smoking, family history of diabetes, classification of a 75-g GTT, hormone replacement therapy (among women), BMI, and homeostasis model assessment. CONCLUSIONS: Among Japanese Americans, CRP may be a risk factor for development of type 2 diabetes independent of either obesity or insulin resistance. Our results suggest that inflammation may be closely related to the mechanism of type 2 diabetes among Japanese Americans.     

Prospective study of C-reactive protein in relation to the development of diabetes and metabolic syndrome in the Mexico City Diabetes Study

OBJECTIVE: Recent evidence suggests that C-reactive protein (CRP) may predict development of diabetes in Caucasian populations. We evaluated CRP as a possible risk factor of the development of diabetes and metabolic syndrome in a 6-year study of 515 men and 729 women from the Mexico City Diabetes Study. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Baseline CRP, indexes of adiposity, and insulin resistance (homeostasis model assessment [HOMA-IR]) were used to predict development of the metabolic syndrome, defined as including two or more of the following: 1) dyslipidemia (triglyceride >/=2.26 mmol/l or HDL cholesterol 140/90 mmHg or on hypertensive medication); or 3) diabetes (1999 World Health Organization criteria). RESULTS: At baseline, CRP correlated significantly (P < 0.001) with all metabolic indexes in women, but less so in men. After 6 years, 14.2% of men and 16.0% of women developed the metabolic syndrome. Compared with tertile 1, women with CRP in the highest tertile had an increased relative risk of developing the metabolic syndrome by 4.0 (95% CI 2.0-7.9) and diabetes by 5.5 (2.2-13.5); these risks changed minimally after adjusting for BMI or HOMA-IR. The area under receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve for the prediction of the development of the syndrome was 0.684 for CRP, increasing to 0.706 when combined with BMI and to 0.710 for a complex model of CRP, BMI, and HOMA-IR. CONCLUSIONS: CRP was not a significant predictor of the development of the metabolic syndrome in men. Our data strongly support the notion that inflammation is important in the pathogenesis of diabetes and metabolic disorders in women.     

Impact of iron deficiency anemia on prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: Increased Hb and ferritin have been associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). This study was performed to determine whether the prevalence of GDM is influenced by iron deficiency anemia. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In a retrospective case-control study, 242 women with iron deficiency anemia (Hb<10 g/dl with features of iron deficiency) were compared with 484 nonanemic women matched for year of birth, who were delivered within the same 24-month period in our hospital, with respect to maternal demographics, infant outcome, and the prevalence of GDM diagnosed according to the World Health Organization criteria. RESULTS: There was no difference in the prepregnancy weight or BMI, but the anemic group had more multiparas and significantly lower gestational weight and BMI increments and prevalence of GDM (odds ratio [OR] 0.52, 95% CI 0.27-0.97), which was inversely correlated (P=0.045) with the duration of anemia. To determine the independent effect of anemia on GDM, multiple logistic regression analysis was performed adjusting for the effects of multiparity and BMI, and anemia was confirmed to be significantly associated with decreased prevalence of GDM (adjusted OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.23-0.90). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of GDM is reduced in iron deficiency anemia, which probably served as a surrogate for other factors such as nutritional inadequacy and reduced gestational weight gain. Further studies on the relationship between nutritional improvement and the increasing prevalence of GDM in the developing world are warranted.     

体质指数与血清C反应蛋白和糖化血红蛋白在妊娠期糖尿病诊断中的意义

目的 探究体质指数(body mass index,BMI)、血清C反应蛋白(C reactive protein,CRP)和糖化血红蛋白(hemoglobin A1c,HbA1c)在妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM)诊断中的临床意义。方法 自2016年5月～2017年5月收集90例确诊GDM患者作为实验组,同期收集90例健康孕妇作为对照组,分别评估两组受检者BMI,检测两组受检者CRP和HbA1c水平,使用χ²检验分析两组受检者BMI差异,t检验分析两组受检者CRP和HbA1c水平差异,Logistic回归分析BMI,CRP,HbA1c与GDM患病风险的相关性。结果 GDM组孕前超重(47.78% vs 27.78%,χ²=7.658,P<0.05)和肥胖(58.89% vs 31.11%,χ²=14.029,P<0.05)孕妇比例均高于对照组,差异均有统计学意义; GDM组孕妇CRP(10.65±0.83 mg/L vs 2.33±0.62 mg/L,t=76.188,P<0.05)和HbA1c[(10.08±0.76)×10⁹/L vs(4.47±0.53)×10⁹/L,t=57.439,P<0.05)]水平均显著高于对照组,差异均有统计学意义; Logistic回归显示CRP,BMI和HbA1c均与GDM患病风险呈正相关(P<0.05)。结论 GDM患者孕前BMI,CRP和HbA1c均显著高于健康孕妇,且与GDM患病风险呈正相关,可作为GDM早期临床诊断的指标。     

Maternal Hyperglycemia During Pregnancy Predicts Adiposity of the Offspring

OBJECTIVE

To investigate associations between maternal pregnancy hyperglycemia, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), and offspring adiposity.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We evaluated these associations in a longitudinal study of 421 mother-daughter pairs at Kaiser Permanente Northern California. Maternal pregnancy glucose values were obtained from maternal medical records. Outcomes included three measures of girls’ adiposity, measured annually: 1) ≥85th age-specific percentile for BMI; 2) percent body fat (%BF); and 3) waist-to-height ratio (WHR).

RESULTS

Adjusting for maternal age at delivery, race/ethnicity, pregravid BMI, girl’s age, and girl’s age at onset of puberty, having a mother with GDM increased a girl’s risk of having a BMI ≥85th percentile or having %BF or WHR in the highest quartile (Q4), compared with those in the lowest quintile of blood glucose (odds ratio [OR] 3.56 [95% CI 1.28–9.92]; OR 3.13 [95% CI 1.08–9.09]; and OR 2.80 [95% CI 1.00–7.84], respectively). There was a significant interaction between the presence of GDM and pregravid BMI; girls whose mothers had both risk factors had the highest odds of having a BMI ≥85th percentile (OR 5.56 [95%CI 1.70–18.2]; Q4 %BF, OR 6.04 [95%CI 1.76–20.7]; and Q4 WHR, OR 3.60 [95%CI 1.35–9.58]). Similar, although weaker, associations were found in the association between hyperglycemia and offspring adiposity.

CONCLUSIONS

Girls who were exposed to maternal GDM or hyperglycemia in utero are at higher risk of childhood adiposity; risk increases if the mother is overweight or obese. Screening and intervention for this high-risk group is warranted to slow the intergenerational transmission of obesity and its sequelae.     

Inflammation and glucose intolerance: a prospective study of gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: Increased leukocyte count is a marker of inflammation that has been associated with the development of type 2 diabetes in prospective studies. Although gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and type 2 diabetes share certain pathophysiological mechanisms, few studies have examined inflammation and risk of GDM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We prospectively examined routine leukocyte counts collected at the first prenatal visit in a cohort of 2,753 nulliparous euglycemic women, 98 (3.6%) of whom were later diagnosed with GDM. Subjects were divided into quartiles of leukocyte count, and the results of third-trimester glucose screening tests and the incidence of GDM among these quartiles were compared. Logistic regression was used to calculate univariate and multivariable-adjusted relative risks (RRs) of GDM according to leukocyte quartiles. RESULTS: Leukocyte counts were increased among women who subsequently developed GDM compared with those who remained free of GDM (10.5 +/- 2.2 vs. 9.2 +/- 2.2 x 10(3) cells/ml; P < 0.01). There was a linear increase in postloading mean glucose levels (P for trend <0.01), the area under the glucose tolerance test curves (P for trend <0.01), and the incidence of GDM (quartile 1, 1.1; quartile 2, 2.5; quartile 3, 4.2; and quartile 4, 6.4%; P for trend <0.01) with increasing leukocyte quartiles. In the multivariable-adjusted analysis, the linear trend in the RR of GDM with increasing leukocyte quartiles remained statistically significant (quartile 1, reference; quartile 2, RR 2.3 [95% CI 0.9-5.7]; quartile 3, 3.3 [1.4-7.8]; quartile 4, 4.9 [2.1-11.2]; P for trend <0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Increased leukocyte count early in pregnancy is independently and linearly associated with the results of GDM screening tests and the risk of GDM. Although overlap in the leukocyte count distributions precludes it from being a clinically useful biomarker, these data suggest that inflammation is associated with the development of GDM and may be another pathophysiological link between GDM and future type 2 diabetes.     

Diabetes and abnormal glucose tolerance in women with previous gestational diabetes

OBJECTIVE: In Spanish women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), we aimed to study the progression to diabetes and abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT) and identify predictive factors. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In 696 women with GDM and 70 control women, glucose tolerance was evaluated postpartum and at 5-year intervals. RESULTS: In the GDM group, the cumulative risk for diabetes and AGT was 13.8 and 42.4% after 11 years compared with 0 and 2.8% in control women, respectively (P < 0.05). Independent predictive factors for diabetes were previous hyperglycemia, four abnormal glucose values on the diagnostic oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) or overt diabetes during pregnancy, 2-h blood glucose on the diagnostic OGTT >/=11.7 mmol/l, gestational age at diagnosis <24 weeks, and prepregnancy BMI >/=26.4 kg/m(2). All of these factors (some with different cutoff points) in addition to fasting glycemia were predictors of AGT also. The risk was nonlinear. Four abnormal glucose values on the diagnostic OGTT or overt diabetes during pregnancy was the strongest predictive factor for diabetes (relative risk 3.92), and prepregnancy BMI was the predictive factor with the highest attributable fraction in the whole group (13.3%). When first postpartum OGTT data were included in the analysis, predictors changed, but the overall prediction was similar. CONCLUSIONS: Spanish women with GDM have an increased risk of diabetes and AGT. Predictive factors display a nonlinear relationship. The strongest predictive factor for diabetes was four abnormal glucose values on the diagnostic OGTT or overt diabetes during pregnancy; the factor with the highest attributable fraction in the whole group was prepregnancy BMI.     

妊娠期糖尿病患者脂联素及C-反应蛋白水平的临床研究

目的探讨妊娠期糖尿病患者早、中孕期的脂联素及C-反应蛋白水平的相关性。为早期预测妊娠期糖尿病提供科学依据。方法选于10-14周已在我院确诊妊娠并产检孕妇,所有孕妇于孕10-14周进行常规体检测身高、体重、血压、血浆脂联素、C-反应蛋白、空腹血糖、孕24-28周复查血浆脂联素、C-反应蛋白、OGTT葡萄糖耐量试验及胰岛素,计算胰岛素抵抗指数,跟踪孕妇至妊娠分娩,根据糖耐量结果分为妊娠期糖尿病组与正常妊娠妇女组对照。对照妊娠期糖尿病孕早、中期血浆脂联素、C-反应蛋白水平及其他检验指标。结果 GDM组10-14周及24-28周血清脂联素均明显低于NGT组,差异显著(P<0.05);GDM组C-反应蛋白明显高于NGT组,差异显著(P<0.05),孕10-14周血清脂联素与C-反应蛋白、孕前体重指数、胰岛素抵抗指数,存在显著负相关性。结论妊娠期糖尿病患者早、中孕期的血浆脂联素及C-反应蛋白水平的存在相关性,脂联素及C-反应蛋白水平是预测妊娠期糖尿病的敏感指标,具有早期预测妊娠期糖尿病的意义。     

Increased risk of hypertension after gestational diabetes mellitus: findings from a large prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

Whether a history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with an increased risk of hypertension after the index pregnancy is not well established.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We investigated the association between GDM and subsequent risk of hypertension after the index pregnancy among 25,305 women who reported at least one singleton pregnancy between 1991 and 2007 in the Nurses’ Health Study II.

RESULTS

During 16 years of follow-up, GDM developed in 1,414 women (5.6%) and hypertension developed in 3,138. A multivariable Cox proportional hazards model showed women with a history of GDM had a 26% increased risk of developing hypertension compared with those without a history of GDM (hazard ratio 1.26 [95% CI 1.11–1.43]; P = 0.0004). These results were independent of pregnancy hypertension or subsequent type 2 diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that women with GDM are at a significant increased risk of developing hypertension after the index pregnancy.Increasing evidence suggests the effect of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) extends beyond pregnancy for both the mother and child (1). For instance, women with a history of GDM are at a substantially higher risk of type 2 diabetes (2); small- and large-vessel vascular dysfunction (3); cardiovascular disease; and metabolic syndrome and its components, including hypertension (4–7). In the current study, we examined longitudinally whether GDM is associated with an increased risk of hypertension later in life independent of other known risk factors.     

Racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus by BMI

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether the association between gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and BMI category varies by racial/ethnic group.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In a cohort of 123,040 women without recognized pregravid diabetes who delivered babies between 1995 and 2006 at Kaiser Permanente of Northern California, we examined racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of GDM by BMI category and the population-attributable risk (PAR) associated with overweight/obesity.

RESULTS

Among all racial/ethnic groups, the age-adjusted prevalence of GDM increased with increasing BMI (kg/m²) category. However, Asian and Filipina women had a prevalence of GDM of 9.9 and 8.5%, respectively, at a BMI of 22.0–24.9 kg/m², whereas in Hispanic, non-Hispanic white, and African American women, the prevalence of GDM was >8.0% at a higher BMI, such as 28–30, 34–36, and ≥37 kg/m², respectively. The estimated PARs suggest that the percentage of GDM that could be prevented if all pregnant women were of normal weight (BMI <25.0 kg/m²) ranging from 65% for African American women to only 23% among Asian women.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians should be aware that the BMI thresholds for increased risk of GDM varies by racial/ethnic group and that the risk is high even at relatively low BMI cutoffs in Asian and Filipina women. Asian women may benefit from different prevention strategies in addition to weight management.Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is carbohydrate intolerance with onset of or first recognition during pregnancy and is one of the most common pregnancy complications in the U.S. GDM is associated with increased risk for perinatal morbidity (1,2), and, in the long-term, women with GDM have an almost sevenfold increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes after pregnancy (3). The prevalence of GDM has increased in all racial/ethnic groups, and this has been observed in several populations in recent decades (4,5). Recent data suggest that the association between glucose and risk of adverse outcomes is continuous; gestational impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) is also associated with both pregnancy complications (6) and subsequent diabetes and cardiometabolic risk (7).Race/ethnicity and obesity are the two strongest independent risk factors for GDM (8–11). However, the demographic distribution of obesity (highest among African Americans and lowest among Asians) does not mirror the demographic distribution of GDM (lowest among African Americans and highest among Asians) (12). Yet there is ongoing debate surrounding the definition of overweight and obesity in Asian populations: the World Health Organization proposed a BMI cutoff of 23.0 kg/m² for overweight among Asians in 2000 (13), compared with a cutoff of 25.0 kg/m² for non-Asian populations. More recently, the World Health Organization stated that the definition of overweight in Asians likely varies depending on the outcome of interest (14). Currently, little is known about racial disparities in the risk of GDM by BMI categories.In a cohort of 123,040 women without recognized pregravid diabetes who delivered babies between 1995 and 2006 at Kaiser Permanente of Northern California (KPNC), we examined racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of GDM and IGT in pregnancy by BMI category and the estimated proportion of cases that could be prevented if overweight/obesity in pregnant women were eliminated (the population-attributable risk [PAR]).     

Rates and risk factors for recurrence of gestational diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To determine the recurrence rate of gestational diabetes (GDM) during a subsequent pregnancy among women who had GDM during an index pregnancy and to identify factors associated with the probability of recurrence RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A retrospective longitudinal study was performed in Nova Scotia, Canada, of women who were diagnosed as having GDM during a pregnancy between the years of 1980 and 1996 and who had at least one subsequent pregnancy during this time period. When only the index and first subsequent pregnancy were analyzed, the cohort included 651 women. The recurrence rate of GDM in the pregnancy after the pregnancy with the initial diagnosis of GDM was determined. Multivariate regression models were constructed to model the recurrence of GDM in a subsequent pregnancy as functions of potential predictors to estimate RRs and CIs. RESULTS: The rate of recurrence of GDM in the pregnancy subsequent to the index pregnancy was found to the 35.6% (95% CI = 31.9-39.3%). Multivariate regression models showed that infant birth weight in the index pregnancy and maternal prepregnancy weight before the subsequent pregnancy were predictive of recurrent GDM. CONCLUSIONS: In this large cohort of women, slightly more than one-third of the subjects had diabetes in a subsequent pregnancy, which is consistent with recurrence rates in other predominately white populations. Strategies to reduce the occurrence of neonatal macrosomia and maternal prepregnancy obesity may help lower the rate of recurrence of GDM.     

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Alone in the Absence of Subsequent Diabetes Is Associated With Microalbuminuria: Results from the Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP)

OBJECTIVE

Women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) maintain a higher risk for recurrent GDM and overt diabetes. Overt diabetes is a risk factor for development of chronic kidney disease (CKD), but GDM alone, without subsequent development of overt diabetes, may also pose a risk for CKD.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional analysis included Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP) participants from 2000 to 2009. Patient characteristics and kidney function among three categories (GDM alone, overt diabetes, and no history of diabetes) were compared. The prevalence of microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria, and CKD stages 1–2 and 3–5 was assessed using logistic regression.

RESULTS

Of 37,716 KEEP female participants, 571 (1.5%) had GDM alone and 12,100 (32.1%) had overt diabetes. Women with GDM had a higher rate of microalbuminuria but not macroalbuminuria than their nondiabetic peers (10.0 vs. 7.7%) that was substantially lower than the 13.6% prevalence in diabetic women. In multivariate analysis, women with GDM alone, compared with nondiabetic women, demonstrated increased odds of CKD stages 1–2 (multivariate odds ratio 1.54 [95% CI 1.16–2.05]) similar to the odds for women with overt diabetes (1.68 [1.55–1.82]). In stratified analyses, age, race, BMI, and hypertension modified the odds for CKD stages 1 –2 but not CKD stages 3–5 among women with GDM.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with GDM alone have a higher prevalence of microalbuminuria than women without any history of diabetes, translating to higher rates of CKD stages 1–2. These results suggest that GDM, even in the absence of subsequent overt diabetes, may increase the risk for future cardiovascular and kidney disease.Most women who develop diabetes during a pregnancy, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), are normoglycemic after delivery but still maintain a higher risk for recurrent GDM, impaired glucose tolerance, and overt diabetes. Indeed, the odds of developing subsequent type 2 diabetes for women with GDM is roughly 5 times higher than that for women with normoglycemic pregnancies in the first 5 years after delivery; the odds rise to more than 9 times higher in the years afterward (1).Although overt diabetes is recognized as a potent risk factor for development of chronic kidney disease (CKD), it is currently unclear whether GDM alone, without subsequent development of overt diabetes, also poses any risk to kidney function. Because certain clinical factors (e.g., waist circumference, BMI, and years postdelivery) have been shown to increase the risk for development of overt diabetes in women with GDM (2), these factors could potentially also modify the risk for development of CKD.We hypothesized that GDM alone would impart an increased risk for CKD and, specifically, that women with GDM would have a level of risk intermediate between that of women without any history of glucose abnormalities and women with overt diabetes. Using data from the National Kidney Foundation''s Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP), a program designed to screen participants at higher risk for CKD than the general population, we examined in cross-sectional analyses whether GDM, in the absence of subsequent overt diabetes, increases the odds of abnormal urinary albumin excretion and impaired glomerular filtration rate. In addition, we examined whether age, race, BMI, or hypertension modifies this relationship between GDM and CKD.     

Relationship between caloric intake and pregnancy outcome in diet-treated gestational diabetes mellitus

A prospective observational study was performed to examine the relationship between estimated caloric intake with maternal blood glucose profile and infant outcome in a group of Chinese women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) treated by diet alone. Following the diagnosis of GDM according to the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria, and using a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), 62 non-obese Chinese women who had completed a 5-day dietary survey were recruited into the study. They were categorized by their mean caloric intake over 5 days into tertiles for comparison of gestational weight gain, glycemic control and pregnancy outcome. Subjects in the highest tertile had a mean intake close to the prescribed intake. No differences were seen in maternal characteristics, gestational weight gain, OGTT, other postprandial glucose concentrations, or infant outcome among the tertiles. Our findings indicated that as long as the caloric intake did not exceed that prescribed, the infant outcome remained satisfactory.     

High blood pressure before and during early pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE—While women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are more likely to display features of the metabolic syndrome, including hypertension, in the years after delivery, it is unclear whether these components are also present before pregnancy. We examined the relationship between blood pressure (BP) measured before and during early pregnancy (<20 weeks) and the risk of GDM in a nested case-control study.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—Case (n = 381) and control (n = 942) subjects were selected from a cohort of women delivering between 1996 and 1998 and screened for GDM between 24 and 28 weeks’ gestation. GDM was defined by the National Diabetes Data Group criteria. BP and covariates data were obtained by review of the medical records. Women were categorized according to BP levels recommended by the American Heart Association outside of pregnancy: <120/80 mmHg (normal), 120–139/80–89 mmHg (prehypertension), and ≥140 and/or ≥90 mmHg or use of antihypertensive medications (hypertension).RESULTS—During early pregnancy, women with prehypertension had a small increased risk of GDM (odds ratio [OR] 1.56 [95% CI 1.16–2.10]), and women with hypertension had a twofold increased risk of GDM (2.04 [1.14–3.65]) compared with women with normal BP after adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, gestational week of BP, BMI, and parity. Similar results were seen among the subset of women with BP levels measured before pregnancy (1.44 [0.95–2.19] for prehypertension and 2.01 [1.01–3.99] for hypertension).CONCLUSIONS—Clinicians should be aware that women presenting with hypertension may warrant early screening or intervention to prevent GDM.Type 2 diabetes and hypertension are both components of the metabolic syndrome and commonly occur together in individuals. A recent study of initially healthy middle-aged women found that blood pressure (BP) predicted the development of incident type 2 diabetes independent of BMI and other known diabetes risk factors (1). Several studies have shown that women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are more likely to have features of the metabolic syndrome, including high BP, in the years after delivery (2–5). It is unclear whether elevated BP before or during early pregnancy is associated with the development of GDM.Crowther et al. (6) showed that treatment of mild-to-moderate levels of glucose intolerance in midpregnancy effectively reduced both perinatal and maternal complications. Therefore, identifying additional variables that predict the development of GDM may help identify women who would benefit from early screening and, if needed, early treatment of pregnancy hyperglycemia to prevent perinatal complications. Because BP is a vital sign that is measured at each medical visit, it would be an easy and inexpensive clinical characteristic that could be used to identify women at risk of GDM. We therefore evaluated the relationship between BP before and during early pregnancy (<20 weeks’ gestation) and risk of GDM in a nested case-control study among women who delivered singleton live infants at a large U.S. group practice prepaid health plan and received uniform screening and a standardized diagnostic test for GDM.     

妊娠期糖尿病营养相关危险因素病例对照研究

目的:探讨妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）营养相关危险因素,为孕期合理膳食及健康管理提供依据。 目的　探讨妊娠糖尿病（gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM）营养相关危险因素,为孕期合理膳食及健康管理提供依据。方法　纳入2014年12月至2015年5月就诊于北京协和医院产科且在孕24~28周完成糖耐量筛查的25~45岁孕妇。采取多阶段连续等比例抽样,确诊GDM新发病例150例为病例组,同期就诊非GDM 150例为对照组。利用食物频率问卷对其一般情况及膳食状况进行调查。采用Logistic回归筛选GDM营养相关危险因素。结果　单因素分析显示,2型糖尿病家族史、孕前体重指数（body mass index, BMI）、GDM史、水果摄入量、精制谷物所占比例、每日肉类摄入量、高脂食品摄入频率、每日食盐摄入量、每日烹调油摄入量、每日坚果摄入量、在外就餐频率、含糖饮料摄入及体力活动状况与GDM之间相关性具有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。多因素Logistic回归分析显示,孕前BMI (OR=1.628, 95% CI: 1.079~2.456)、2型糖尿病家族史 (OR=1.761, 95% CI: 1.001~3.096)、GDM史(OR=7.855, 95% CI: 1.982~31.125)、水果摄入量(OR=1.457, 95% CI: 1.148~1.849)、精制谷物(OR=1.350, 95% CI:1.008~1.808)、高脂食品(OR=1.398, 95% CI: 1.066~1.833)及缺乏体力活动(OR=1.257, 95% CI: 1.111~1.422)与GDM具有相关性(P＜0.05)。结论　孕前BMI异常、2型糖尿病家族史、GDM史、水果摄入过量、主食过于精制、经常摄入高脂食品及缺乏体力活动可增加GDM发病风险。