Potential unintended pregnancies averted and cost savings associated with a revised Medicaid sterilization policy

ObjectiveMedicaid sterilization policy, which includes a mandatory 30-day waiting period between consent and the sterilization procedure, poses significant logistical barriers for many women who desire publicly funded sterilization. Our goal was to estimate the number of unintended pregnancies and the associated costs resulting from unfulfilled sterilization requests due to Medicaid policy barriers.Study DesignWe constructed a cost-effectiveness model from the health care payer perspective to determine the incremental cost over a 1-year time horizon of the current Medicaid sterilization policy compared to a hypothetical, revised policy in which women who desire a postpartum sterilization would face significantly reduced barriers. Probability estimates for potential outcomes in the model were based on published sources; costs of Medicaid-funded sterilizations and Medicaid-covered births were based on data from the Medicaid Statistical Information System and The Guttmacher Institute, respectively.ResultsWith the implementation of a revised Medicaid sterilization policy, we estimated that the number of fulfilled sterilization requests would increase by 45%, from 53.3% of all women having their sterilization requests fulfilled to 77.5%. Annually, this increase could potentially lead to over 29,000 unintended pregnancies averted and $215 million saved.ConclusionA revised Medicaid sterilization policy could potentially honor women’s reproductive decisions, reduce the number of unintended pregnancies and save a significant amount of public funds.ImplicationCompared to the current federal Medicaid sterilization policy, a hypothetical, revised policy that reduces logistical barriers for women who desire publicly funded, postpartum sterilization could potentially avert over 29,000 unintended pregnancies annually and therefore lead to cost savings of $215 million each year.     

Potential unintended pregnancies averted and cost savings associated with a revised Medicaid sterilization policy

Objective

Medicaid sterilization policy, which includes a mandatory 30-day waiting period between consent and the sterilization procedure, poses significant logistical barriers for many women who desire publicly funded sterilization. Our goal was to estimate the number of unintended pregnancies and the associated costs resulting from unfulfilled sterilization requests due to Medicaid policy barriers.

Study Design

We constructed a cost-effectiveness model from the health care payer perspective to determine the incremental cost over a 1-year time horizon of the current Medicaid sterilization policy compared to a hypothetical, revised policy in which women who desire a postpartum sterilization would face significantly reduced barriers. Probability estimates for potential outcomes in the model were based on published sources; costs of Medicaid-funded sterilizations and Medicaid-covered births were based on data from the Medicaid Statistical Information System and The Guttmacher Institute, respectively.

Results

With the implementation of a revised Medicaid sterilization policy, we estimated that the number of fulfilled sterilization requests would increase by 45%, from 53.3% of all women having their sterilization requests fulfilled to 77.5%. Annually, this increase could potentially lead to over 29,000 unintended pregnancies averted and $215 million saved.

Conclusion

A revised Medicaid sterilization policy could potentially honor women’s reproductive decisions, reduce the number of unintended pregnancies and save a significant amount of public funds.

Implication

Compared to the current federal Medicaid sterilization policy, a hypothetical, revised policy that reduces logistical barriers for women who desire publicly funded, postpartum sterilization could potentially avert over 29,000 unintended pregnancies annually and therefore lead to cost savings of $215 million each year.     

Using Deliberative and Qualitative Methods to Recommend Revisions to the Medicaid Sterilization Waiting Period

BackgroundSterilization is used by one-quarter of women in the United States for contraception and is a preferred birth control method among women with Medicaid. A history of coercive sterilization practices in the United States led to federal regulation of consent for Medicaid sterilization (including a mandated waiting period); this regulation can be a barrier to sterilization in Medicaid-insured women. This study aimed to develop a revised model of Medicaid sterilization policy grounded in the experiences of women impacted by current regulations.MethodsThis prospective study used in-depth interviews with 32 Medicaid-insured women who had obtained or tried to obtain sterilization to elicit recommendations regarding the Medicaid waiting period. Deliberative methods (a planning cell including 20 key community stakeholders) were used to evaluate women's recommendations and propose a revised policy for sterilization under Medicaid.ResultsIn-depth interview data demonstrated that women were often not made aware of the 30-day waiting period during informed consent before sterilization. Once informed about the policy, women described the Medicaid waiting period as “unfair,” because it did not apply to all women. After deliberating women's recommendations to change the policy, key stakeholders came to a consensus around replacing the current waiting period policy with an improved consent process that would acknowledge the problematic history of coercive sterilization. Participants could not endorse removing the waiting period altogether without evidence that the health system had shifted away from coercive sterilization practices.ConclusionsUsing deliberative methods and the recommendations of women with Medicaid insurance, community stakeholders recommended developing a revised Medicaid sterilization consent policy that acknowledged the historical context of this procedure.     

A qualitative study of barriers to postpartum sterilization and women's attitudes toward unfulfilled sterilization requests

BACKGROUND: This longitudinal, qualitative study explores barriers to postpartum sterilization from the perspective of low-income minority women. We examine women's feelings and attitudes regarding a canceled or postponed procedure over time. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted structured, in-depth baseline interviews with 34 postpartum women with unfulfilled sterilization requests in a university hospital setting. Follow-up phone interviews were conducted at 6 weeks and 6 months postpartum. RESULTS: Reasons for unfulfilled sterilization requests included last-minute misgivings, maternal medical complications, lack of a valid Medicaid consent form, fear of the procedure and provider influence. Sense of autonomy regarding sterilization decision making and ability to obtain interval sterilization or initiate and/or successfully use reversible contraception influenced subsequent attitudes regarding an unfulfilled request. CONCLUSIONS: Sterilization counseling should include comprehensive information regarding the surgical procedure and associated risks and the development of a backup contraceptive plan, with particular emphasis on increasing contraceptive self-efficacy and autonomy in sterilization decision making.     

Barriers to obtaining a desired postpartum tubal sterilization

OBJECTIVE: To determine why women do not undergo postpartum sterilization despite expressing desire during antepartum care. METHODS: In a retrospective chart review, we identified all women between March 2002 and November 2003 who requested postpartum sterilization during antepartum care but did not undergo the procedure. We report the reasons why sterilizations were not performed. RESULTS: We reviewed 6,589 prenatal care and delivery records identifying 324 women meeting inclusion criteria. One hundred and four women changed their mind. Of women still desiring sterilization at discharge, the most common reasons for not undergoing the procedure were lack of valid Medicaid sterilization consent forms [n=121; 37.3%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 32.0-42.6%]; a medical condition precluding the procedure (n=47; 14.5%, 95% CI 10.7-18.3%); lack of availability of an operating room (n=2; 6.5%, 95% CI 3.8-9.2%). CONCLUSION: We found that the Medicaid consent process, medical conditions and insufficient operating room space prevented women from having the desired surgery.     

Medicaid and fulfillment of desired postpartum sterilization

Objective

We sought to assess fulfillment of sterilization requests while accounting for the complex interplay between insurance, clinical and social factors in a contemporary context that included both inpatient and outpatient postpartum sterilization procedures.

Development and validation of a Medicaid Postpartum Tubal Sterilization Knowledge Questionnaire

BACKGROUND: We sought to describe the development and validation of the Postpartum Tubal Sterilization Knowledge Questionnaire (PTSK-Q), a survey designed to assess Medicaid recipients' understanding of the postpartum tubal sterilization process. STUDY DESIGN: Initially, the investigators generated a list of 17 potential items to include in the PTSK-Q. Eleven content experts reviewed two drafts of the PTSK-Q and provided qualitative and quantitative assessments. Eight women completed a field test to determine suitability and clarity of individual PTSK-Q items, while 26 women completed a pilot test to determine internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the PTSK-Q. The Flesch Reading Ease (FRE) was used to assess reading grade level of the PTSK-Q. RESULTS: Seven items were rated as "essential" (content validity ratio=p<.05) by content experts and composed the final PTSK-Q. Internal consistency, using Kuder Richardson-20, was 0.68. Test-retest reliability, using intraclass correlation coefficient, was 0.93. The FRE score of the PTSK-Q was 85.14 (sixth reading grade level). CONCLUSIONS: The PTSK-Q is a valid, readable and reliable knowledge assessment instrument for assessing understanding of postpartum sterilization and Medicaid sterilization consent requirements.     

Telemedicine is an important aspect of healthcare services amid COVID‐19 outbreak: Its barriers in Bangladesh and strategies to overcome

The current pandemic of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID‐19) has been a global concern since early 2020, where the number of COVID‐19 cases is also on a rapid surge in Bangladesh with the report of a total of 276,549 cases after the detection of the first three cases in this country on 8 March 2020. The COVID‐19 pandemic has made a seismic shift in the healthcare delivery system, where physician offices have accelerated digital health solutions at record speed, putting telemedicine (i.e., telehealth) at centre stage. Amid the severely contagious COVID‐19, telemedicine has moved from being an optional service to an essential one. As the developing country, there are some barriers to get evenly distributed advantages of this approach due to the digital divides and disparities. In this commentary, we have described the importance of telemedicine service amid the outbreak of COVID‐19 in Bangladesh, the barriers and challenges that the country is facing to implement this approach and the strategies to overcome these barriers in this developing country.     

Reconsidering racial/ethnic differences in sterilization in the United States

Objective

Cross-sectional studies have found that low-income and racial/ethnic minority women are more likely to use female sterilization and less likely to rely on a partner’s vasectomy than women with higher incomes and whites. However, studies of pregnant and postpartum women report that racial/ethnic minorities, particularly low-income minority women, face greater barriers in obtaining a sterilization than do whites and those with higher incomes. In this paper, we address this apparent contradiction by examining the likelihood a woman gets a sterilization following each delivery, which removes from the comparison any difference in the number of births she has experienced.

Study Design

Using the 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth, we fit multivariable-adjusted logistic and Cox regression models to estimate odds ratios and hazard ratios for getting a postpartum or interval sterilization, respectively, according to race/ethnicity and insurance status.

Results

Women’s chances of obtaining a sterilization varied by both race/ethnicity and insurance. Among women with Medicaid, whites were more likely to use female sterilization than African Americans and Latinas. Privately insured whites were more likely to rely on vasectomy than African Americans and Latinas, but among women with Medicaid-paid deliveries reliance on vasectomy was low for all racial/ethnic groups.

Conclusions

Low-income racial/ethnic minority women are less likely to undergo sterilization following delivery compared to low-income whites and privately insured women of similar parities. This could result from unique barriers to obtaining permanent contraception and could expose women to the risk of future unintended pregnancies.

Implications

Low-income minorities are less likely to undergo sterilization than low-income whites and privately insured minorities, which may result from barriers to obtaining permanent contraception, and exposes women to unintended pregnancies.     

The use of a low-literacy version of the Medicaid sterilization consent form to assess sterilization-related knowledge in Spanish-speaking women: results from a randomized controlled trial

Objective

To learn whether a version of the Medicaid Sterilization Consent Form (SCF) adapted for populations of low-literacy can help Spanish-speaking women better understand the process and consequences of tubal sterilization.

Variation by state in Medicaid sterilization policies for physician reimbursement

ObjectiveTo evaluate state-level variation in Medicaid sterilization reimbursement policies for physicians in terms of policy details, flexibility, and review process.Study DesignWe reviewed state Medicaid websites and interviewed state employees to better understand reimbursement policies and implementation. We attempted to obtain policy details and instructions for physicians from all 50 state Medicaid office websites. We invited employees in all 50 state Medicaid director's offices to participate in semi-structured qualitative interviews.ResultsWe were able to collect data from 48 states’ websites for analysis, conducted 15 telephone interviews, and received 4 written responses from state Medicaid employees. State policies varied greatly in terms of degree of instruction available online to clinicians, number of content-related and logistical changes made compared to the federal policy, type of procedures included, corrections permitted, flexibility in terms of surgeon and procedure changes, review process, reasons for and ramifications of denial, and date of last policy revision.ConclusionThere is need for increased transparency and instruction by state Medicaid offices as well as revision of the Medicaid policy to account for the contemporary clinical practice of female permanent contraception. Clinicians should communicate with state Medicaid employees in order to clarify important policy details and obtain greater understanding of their state's review process and ramifications to ensure their clinical practice is both correct and reimbursable.ImplicationsGreater consistency between states in terms of Medicaid policy and implementation is crucial to ensuring physicians are fairly reimbursed for their work, and female permanent contraception remains an accessible contraceptive method for women.     

Tubal sterilization in the United States, 1994-1996

CONTEXT: Although the number and rate of tubal sterilizations, the settings in which they are performed and the characteristics of women obtaining sterilization procedures provide important information on contraceptive practice and trends in the United States, such data have not been collected and tabulated for manyyears. METHODS: Information on tubal sterilizations from the National Hospital Discharge Survey and the National Survey of Ambulatory Surgery was analyzed to estimate the number and characteristics of women having a tubal sterilization procedure in the United States during the period 1994-1996 and the resulting rates of tubal sterilization. These results were compared with those of previous studies to examine trends in clinical setting, in the timing of the procedure and in patient characteristics. RESULTS: In 1994-1996, more than two million tubal sterilizations were performed, for an average annual rate of 1 1.5 per 1,000 women; half were performed postpartum and half were interval procedures (i. e., were unrelated by timing to a pregnancy). All postpartum procedures were performed during inpatient hospital stays, while 96% of interval procedures were outpatient procedures. Postpartum sterilization rates were higher than interval sterilization rates among women 20-29 years of age; interval sterilization procedures were more common than postpartum procedures at ages 35-49. Sterilization rates were highest in the South. For postpartum procedures, private insurance was the expectedprimary source of payment for 48% and Medicaid was expected to pay for 41 %; for interval sterilization procedures, private insurance was the expected primary source of payment for 68% and Medicaid for 24%. CONCLUSIONS: Outpatient tubal sterilizations andprocedures using laparoscopy have increased substantially since the last comprehensive analysis of tubal sterilization in 1987, an indication of the effect of technical advances on the provision of this service. Continued surveillance of both inpatient and outpatient procedures is necessary to monitor the role of tubal sterilization in contraceptive practice.     

Trends and Disparities in Postpartum Sterilization after Cesarean Section, 2000 through 2008

PurposeTubal sterilization patterns are influenced by factors including patient race, ethnicity, level of education, method of payment, and hospital size and affiliation. However, less is known about how these factors influence tubal sterilizations performed as secondary procedures after cesarean sections (C-sections). Thus, this study examines variations in the prevalence of postpartum tubal sterilizations after C-sections from 2000 to 2008.MethodsWe used data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey to estimate odds ratios for patient-level (race, marital status, age) and system-level (hospital size, type, region) factors on the likelihood of receiving tubal sterilization after C-section.ResultsA disproportionate share of postpartum tubal sterilizations after C-section was covered by Medicaid. The likelihood of undergoing sterilization was increased for Black women, women of older age, and non-single women. Additionally, they were increased in proprietary and government hospitals, smaller hospital settings, and the Southern United States.ConclusionsOur findings indicate that Black women and those with Medicaid coverage in particular were substantially more likely to undergo postpartum tubal sterilization after C-section. We also found that hospital characteristics and region were significant predictors. This adds to the growing body of evidence that suggests that tubal sterilization may be a disparity issue patterned by multiple factors and calls for greater understanding of the role of patient-, provider-, and system-level characteristics on such outcomes.     

产后避孕的国内外指南

产后避孕方法的选择受妇女生理状态和哺乳的影响,产后即时或尽早落实常规避孕措施,对预防人工流产及其并发症有重要作用。本综述对产后避孕的国内外指南进行复习和比较,重点讨论经产妇可优先选择的宫内节育器(intrauterine contraceptive device,IUD)、雌孕激素复方和单纯孕激素避孕方法及女性绝育术在产后不同时期使用的医学标准,为临床医生在产后帮助妇女选用安全、适宜的避孕方法提供指导。     

Denying postpartum sterilization to women with Emergency Medicaid does not reduce hospital charges

BACKGROUND: To assess the change in hospital reimbursement resulting from a 2004 policy requiring immigrants with Emergency Medicaid (EM) to pay for sterilization following vaginal delivery, we examined rates of tubal ligation following vaginal [postpartum bilateral tubal ligation (PPBTL)] and cesarean [cesarean section with bilateral tubal ligation (CSBTL)] deliveries, and compared these to a Standard Medicaid (SM) population unaffected by the policy. STUDY DESIGN: Records of women who delivered at the Oregon Health and Science University between January 2000 and December 2006 were reviewed. Data examined included insurance, mode of delivery, sterilization and net revenue by delivery type. RESULTS: A total of 3612 SM patients and 4220 EM patients delivered in the 5 years before the policy, and 1628 SM patients and 2066 EM patients delivered in the 2 years after the policy. The incidence of PPBTL among EM patients delivering vaginally dropped from 9.9% prepolicy to 0.9% postpolicy (p<.01). Concurrently, CSBTL among EM patients having cesarean section increased from 18.8% prepolicy to 23.5% postpolicy (p=.03). Notably, no significant change in PPBTL (pre: 8.7%, post: 9.2%, p=1.0) or CSBTL (pre: 22.9%, post: 22.9%, p=.62) occurred in the SM group. The net revenue change for all deliveries with tubal ligations in the EM population postpolicy was -US$5284. CONCLUSION: Requiring out-of-pocket payment for sterilization following vaginal delivery in an EM population results in a decrease in PPBTL and an increase in CSBTL, and does not reduce hospital financial losses.     

Psychological conditions in pregnancy and the puerperium and their relevance to postpartum sterilization: a review

In many parts of the world, elective sterilization has become the preferred method of contraception for large numbers of women who have completed their families. Some concern has been expressed in the medical literature about the adverse psychological sequelae of the procedure. However, although many sterilizations are performed postpartum, there have been no attempts to separate the effects which may indeed be attributable to sterilization from those often associated with pregnancy and the puerperium. The present paper reviews major research findings in the perinatal field and relates them to results of selected studies of female sterilization. The review concentrates on psychological disturbances in the postpartum period, but changes during pregnancy, as well as disturbances in postnatal sexuality and menstruation, are also discussed. Well-designed studies are necessary in order to overcome the methodological difficulties often encountered in the existing literature.     

Telemedicine barriers and challenges for persons with disabilities: COVID-19 and beyond

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced a rapid adoption of telemedicine over traditional in-person visits due to social restrictions. While telemedicine improves access and reduces barriers to healthcare access for many, several barriers and challenges remain for persons with disabilities, and novel challenges have been exposed, many of which may persist long-term.The challenges and barriers that need to be systematically addressed include: Infrastructure and access barriers, operational challenges, regulatory barriers, communication barriers and legislative barriers.Persons with disabilities are a vulnerable population and little attention has been placed on their healthcare access during the pandemic. Access and communication during a healthcare encounter are important mediators of outcomes for persons with disabilities. Significant, long-term changes in technological, regulatory, and legislative infrastructure and custom solutions to unique patient and health system needs are required to address these barriers going forward in order to improve healthcare access and outcomes for persons with disabilities.     

No payment for preventable complications: reviewing the early literature for content, guidance, and impressions

In 2008, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) implemented a policy of not paying hospitals for the care of several preventable hospital-acquired conditions. The CMS policy is a unique value-based purchasing initiative because it relies on penalties rather than on rewards. Because of its novelty, less is known in advance about how this type of payment approach might work, get implemented, or be viewed by stakeholders in health care. As a result, the early published literature focusing on the CMS policy may serve as an important frame of reference among managers, policy makers, and researchers for guiding attitudes and behaviors. This review examines over an initial 3-year period academic and trade articles addressing the CMS policy to gain the impressions, guidance, and content provided in this literature. Key findings include an inordinately small number of articles focused on the new CMS policy; little original research or empirical prediction on CMS policy implementation and outcomes; a highly opinionated, non-evidence-based literature; a literature less able to address the policy impact for specific preventable complications or hospital settings; and a high percentage of articles making inconsistent, broad-based linkages between the CMS policy and specific quality improvement initiatives that potentially limit the policy's long-term acceptance as an improvement strategy.     

Federal and State Policy Efforts to Address Maternal Opioid Misuse: Gaps and Challenges

Background

Opioid misuse during pregnancy is increasingly common and is associated with preterm birth and neonatal abstinence syndrome. As such, there is increased policy attention on reducing opioid misuse and increasing detection and treatment of opioid use disorder around the time of childbirth.

Explaining the adoption of telemedicine services: an analysis of a paediatric telemedicine service

Since 1998, over 1300 telemedicine consultations have been provided to 12 schools in Kansas City. Despite the success of the programme, effective utilization of services has not occurred at all sites. We used a focus group and survey methods to investigate barriers to and catalysts for service adoption. The results showed that the school nurses strongly supported the programme. They valued its ability to provide health-care for the children and they welcomed their enhanced role. However, technical complexities and difficulties in obtaining parental consent were found to impede adoption. The nurses also expressed frustration with school personnel who had a poor understanding of their role in general as well as that of the telemedicine service. A new state reimbursement policy may promote greater understanding and provide a financial incentive for schools to adopt the telemedicine service.