n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oils

Principal food sources of the n-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid are salad and cooking oil, salad dressing, shortening, margarine, and food-service fat and oil products made from canola oil or soybean oil. Using food production data provided by US trade associations and by Statistics Canada, I estimated the per capita availability of alpha-linolenic acid from vegetable-oil products in the United States to be approximately 1.2 g/d and in Canada, approximately 2 g/d. The higher alpha-linolenic acid availability in Canada is largely accounted for by widespread use of canola oil there. Considering also contributions to dietary alpha-linolenic acid of other foods such as nuts, dairy products, and vegetables, it would appear that total intake of alpha-linolenic acid in US and Canadian diets adequately exceeds the reported nutritional requirement. Emerging research has suggested possible health benefits associated with modest increases in dietary alpha-linolenic acid, including reduced blood-clotting tendency and reduced blood pressure.     

Abstracts of Articles on Nutrition and Bone Loss

Objective: To identify if particular foods or food groups may be associated with obesity in children and adolescents and to determine if consuming food away from home (FAFH) has an effect on the nutritional quality of their diets.

Design: One-year cross-sectional study.

Setting/Subjects: The obese subjects (n = 91) were on the waiting list for a hospital-based weight control treatment program. The non-obese subjects (n = 90) were recruited from community advertisements.

Measures of Outcome: Information on food intake was obtained using the dietary history method by a Registered Dietitian. Body fat was determined by bioelectrical impedance analysis.

Results: Obese children and adolescents consumed significantly more servings of meat and alternatives, grain products, FAFH, sugar-sweetened drinks and potato chips which contributed to a higher calorie, fat and sugar intake compared to non-obese children and adolescents. Sugar-sweetened drinks were only significantly greater in boys. The consumption of meat servings, sugar-sweetened drinks and FAFH was positively correlated with percent body fat. The frequency of food consumed outside of the Canada’s Food Guide To Healthy Eating was not different between the two groups.

Conclusions: Obese children and adolescents need to limit their access to food consumed away from home and sugar-sweetened drinks as there is a relationship between these foods and body fatness.     

Fat avoidance and replacement behaviors predict low-fat intake among urban African American adolescents

Using measures of behaviors shown to predict low-fat intake in previous research, this study examined whether the behaviors would predict low-fat intake among urban African American adolescents. Recruited through youth services agencies in Philadelphia, Pa, participants were 399 African American adolescents (67% female subjects) with a mean age of 13.09 years (range, 10-15 years). Fat-related dietary behaviors were measured using items that were adapted from the Food Habits Questionnaire. Fat intake was measured using the Block Fat Screener. Spearman correlations examined the relationships between fat-related dietary behaviors and fat intake. Seven behaviors were significantly associated with low-fat intake: had chicken that was baked or broiled instead of fried; ordered pasta or pizza served without meat sauce or meat toppings; had a vegetarian dinner; used low-calorie instead of regular salad dressing; ate at least 2 vegetables (not green salad) at dinner; ate bread, rolls, or muffins without butter or margarine; and avoided foods that were fried in oil, shortening, or lard. Using multiple regression, fat intake was regressed on the linear combination of demographic variables and these fat-related dietary behaviors. The regression equation accounted for 17% of the variance in fat intake (adjusted R² = 0.13). Fat avoidance (ate bread, rolls, or muffins without butter or margarine) and replacement (ordered pasta or pizza served without meat sauce or meat toppings) behaviors were significant predictors of low-fat intake. Dietary interventions to lower fat intake among urban African American adolescents should promote the adoption of these behaviors.     

The dietary intake of homeless males sleeping rough in Central London

Data concerning the food and beverage intake (including alcohol) of 79 males, aged 19–50 years, sleeping rough in Central London, who did not appear to be under the influence of drink, drugs or suffering from mental illness were collected by prompted 24-h recall and food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The source of food was noted and the subjects were asked about food availability and food needs. The group had intakes significantly lower than Dietary Reference Values (DRV) for the UK for energy, carbohydrate, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), folate, zinc and magnesium. Significantly higher values were seen for protein, fat, vitamin B₁₂, calcium and iron. Alcohol intake was higher than that assumed to approximate current intakes of the UK population. Mean macronutrient intakes for the group were similar to means for British adult men (OPCS, 1990), only protein and NSP were significantly lower. The FFQ showed very low consumption/week of fruit, vegetables, salad, fruit juice and wholewheat/brown products. Organized charities provided the major source of food energy for the group as a whole. Self-supplied sources provided the major source of total energy. It is suggested that the group may benefit from an increase in dietary fibre and energy, with an increase in the proportion of energy supplied by carbohydrate and a reduction in energy from fat and alcohol. A varied supply of food and hot meals during weekends as well as during the week may benefit the group both aesthetically and nutritionally. It may be advisable to increase the supply of wholemeal/brown bread, fruits, vegetables and salad foods without decreasing the energy content of the food available.     

Consuming Vegetable-Based Salad Is Associated with Higher Nutrient Intakes and Diet Quality among US Adults,What We Eat in America,National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014

BackgroundConsuming salad is one strategy with the potential to harmonize diets more closely with national dietary guidance. However, it is not known whether nutrient intake and diet quality differ between people who consume vegetable-based salad and those who do not.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to compare nutrient intake and diet quality between salad reporters and nonreporters.DesignThis study is a cross-sectional analysis of 1 day of dietary intake data collected via 24-hour recall.Participants/settingAdults 20 years and older (n=9,678) in What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014 were included. Respondents who ate salad on the intake day were considered salad reporters.Main outcome measuresThis study estimated nutrient intake from all foods and beverages (excluding supplements) and evaluated diet quality using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) 2015.Statistical analysesNutrient intake and HEI scores were compared between salad reporters and nonreporters using paired t tests with regression adjustment for confounding variables. Results were considered significant at P<0.001.ResultsOn the intake day, 23% of adults consumed salad. Energy, protein, and carbohydrate intakes did not differ between salad reporters and nonreporters. Salad reporters had higher intakes than nonreporters of dietary fiber, total fat, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins A, B-6, C, E, K, folate, choline, magnesium, potassium, and sodium (P<0.001). Total HEI 2015 scores were significantly higher for reporters (56 of a possible 100 points) than nonreporters (50 points) P<0.001. Reporters also had significantly higher scores for eight of 13 HEI components: total vegetables, greens and beans, whole fruits, total protein foods, seafood and plant proteins, fatty acids, refined grains, and added sugars (P<0.001).ConclusionsIncorporating vegetable-based salad into one’s diet may be one effective way to increase nutrient intake and improve overall diet quality. Regardless of salad reporting status, HEI scores show that diets of US adults need improvement.     

上海市2012-2014年居民膳食营养状况及季节特征研究

目的 了解上海市居民膳食营养状况及季节特征。方法 分别在2012－2014年间4个不同季节对上海市代表性样本人群进行追踪调查,采用连续3 d 24 h膳食回顾询问法辅以家庭调味品称重法收集食物摄入信息。依据中国食物成分表计算能量及产能营养素摄入。结果 2012－2014年上海市居民全年平均每标准人日粮谷类摄入量191.09 g、蔬菜250.69 g、水果107.23 g、动物性食物223.53 g、乳及乳制品96.39 g、大豆及其制品11.19 g、烹调油36.54 g、烹调盐7.57 g,不同季节食物消费差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。平均每标准人日能量摄入量2 048.70 kcal、碳水化合物241.04 g、蛋白质82.35 g、脂肪85.99 g,脂肪提供能量百分比37.99%。季节、年龄、地区和收入是膳食结构的影响因素（P<0.05）。结论 上海市居民能量摄入满足需求,脂肪能量摄入比例较高,膳食结构欠合理。烹调油、盐摄入量低于国家大城市平均水平但仍高于推荐量,应继续开展针对性营养干预。膳食摄入存在季节特征,夏季膳食摄入更合理,相关研究需考虑季节因素影响。     

Monitoring Dietary Change in a Low-Fat Diet Intervention Study: Advantages of Using 24-Hour Dietary Recalls vs Food Records

Objective The purpose of the study was to evaluate two methods of dietary assessment for monitoring change in fat intake in a low-fat diet intervention study.Design The two dietary assessment methods were a 4-day food record (4DFR) and an unannounced 24-hour dietary recall conducted by telephone interview (referred to as a telephone recall [TR]). Subjects were assigned randomly to either a low-fat diet intervention group or a control group that received no counseling about fat intake. Dietary data were collected at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months.Subjects Two hundred ninety postmenopausal women with localized breast cancer were recruited at seven clinical centers in the United States.Statistical analysis Analysis of variance was used to test for significant differences in mean fat and energy intakes.Results Three sources of error were identified: (a) an instrument effect, suggesting underreporting at baseline of approximately 8% in mean energy intake and 11% in mean fat intake in the TR group compared with the 4DFR group (P=.0001); (b) a repeated measures effect observed for the 4DFR, suggesting underreporting of approximately 7% for energy intake and 14% for fat intake in the control group at 6 and 12 months compared with baseline values (P<.001); and (c) an adherence effect (or compliance bias), suggesting greater compliance to the low-fat intervention diet when subjects were keeping food records than when estimates were based on the unannounced TR. Compared with the TR, the 4DFR overestimated the extent of fat reduction in the low-fat diet intervention group by 41% (P=.08) and 25% (P=.62) at 6 and 12 months, respectively.Application Multiple days of unannounced 24-hour recalls may be preferable to multiple-day food records for monitoring dietary change in diet intervention studies. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996; 96:574-579.     

A comparative study of dietary intake among urban Japanese and Chinese aged 50∼79

This study examined the difference in dietary intake between middle-aged and elderly Japanese and Chinese. Volunteers aged 50–79 living in two cities in both Japan and China were recruited in local community service centers and were asked to complete a 3-day diet recording. The final results were based on 356 subjects (166 Chinese and 190 Japanese). In men, the Japanese subjects significantly consumed more energy, with a large proportion of the energy coming from carbohydrates, dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin B₂, vitamin C and they consumed less iron, and a lower proportion of energy from protein and fat than in the Chinese subjects. In women, the Japanese subjects had significantly higher intakes of energy, the proportion of energy from carbohydrates, dietary fiber, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin B₁, vitamin B₂, vitamin C and they consumed less iron, with the proportion of energy from protein and from fat in comparison with the Chinese women. Fat intake provided more than 29% of the total dietary energy in Chinese subjects. Daily intake of food items was significantly greater in the Japanese participants, both men and women (18.54 ±2.85, 20.11 ± 2.40, respectively), than in the Chinese subjects (14.11 ± 3.62, 15.51 ± 4.15, respectively) (p<0.01 by Mann WhitneyU-test). The present study suggests that the middleaged and elderly Chinese subjects should increase their variety of foods consumed while decreasing their consumption of high-fat foods. For the Japanese subjects, the higher intake of total calories among the woman should also be noted.     

Energy and Fat Compensation During Long Term Consumption of Reduced Fat Products

The objective of this study was to investigate the behavioral response to the long term realistic consumption of reduced fat products. During six months, a control group of 103 subjects had free access to about 45 commercially available full-fat products, and a reduced-fat group of 117 subjects had access to the reduced fat equivalents. These experimental products covered about 37% of total energy intake in the control group and 30% of energy intake in the reduced fat group. Other non–experimental food products were bought in regular shops. The results showed that, compared to a baseline measurement before the start of the study, energy intake increased from 10.4 MJ/day to 11.2 MJ/d in the control group, whereas it remained constant at 10.2 MJ/d in the reduced fat group. Fat intake in the control group increased from 99 g/d (35·6 en%) to 123g/d (40·6 en%), whereas fat intake in the reduced fat group decreased from 95 g/d (34·7 en%) to 90 g/d (32·7 en%). The energy and fat intake from experimental products was lower in the reduced fat group (3.1 MJ/d, 37 g fat/d) than in the control group (4.2 MJ/d, 71 g fat/d). There was some compensatory response in the consumption of experimental products: the ingested amount of experimental products was about 10% higher in the reduced fat group (447 g/d) than in the control group (399 g/d) [t=2.6;p<0.01]. There was no compensatory response in the consumption of non-experimental products. Both the control and reduced fat group consumed about 7.1 MJ/d and 53 g fat/d from non–experimental products. It is concluded that long term consumption of reduced fat products leads to a lower energy and fat intake, compared to the consumption of full-fat products.     

Stages of Change for Reducing Dietary Fat Intake over 18 Months

Objective To describe the stages of change that take place over 18 months, using the criterion of fat intake ≤30% of total energy to define effective action and to investigate the effect of a single dietary feedback report on dietary fat reduction.Design Subjects were randomly assigned to experimental or control conditions and assessed at 0, 6, 12, and 18 months for fat intake and stage of change. Subjects in the experiment group received 1 feedback report at baseline; all subjects received a report at 12 months.Subjects Potential subjects (n=614) were recruited by mail from a random sample of nonsmoking adults (32% response rate). Subjects were excluded if consuming ≤30% of energy from fat or if pregnant or lactating (n=145). Although 83% of subjects (n=389) completed the 18-month study, only 296 provided complete data for all time points. The study was restricted to these 296.Intervention Dietary feedback reports plus brief educational materials were provided following the experiment design.Analyses Repeated measures analysis of variance with fat intake (percent of energy from fat) as the dependent variable and baseline stage and condition as independent variables. In addition, t tests were used to compare groups at specific time points.Results There was a main effect for time (F_3,286=39, P<.0001) and baseline stage (F_3,286=24, P<.0001), but no effect of feedback. There was a time-by-feedback interaction (F_4,286=4.7, P<.01). There was a short-term effect of feedback over 6 months (t=3.8, P<.001), but this effect was not significant at other time points. About 9% to 12% of subjects in the precontemplation or contemplation stages, 24% of subjects in the preparation stage, and 40% of unclassified subjects at baseline progressed to the action stage by 18 months. Between 12 and 18 months, subjects progressing at least 1 stage reduced their fat intake to a greater extent than subjects who failed to progress t=5.1, P<.0001).Implications Interventions targeted to stage of change have the potential for accelerating the rate of change for dietary fat reduction, but reaching the goal of fat intake ≤30% of total energy may require more intensive interventions than a single dietary feedback report. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998; 98:529–534.     

Difficulties in changing the diet in relation to dietary fat intake among patients with coronary heart disease

OBJECTIVE: To study barriers in following nutritional advice among coronary heart disease patients in relation to dietary fat intake. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study using 4-day food records and a questionnaire with regard to barriers to or difficulties in following dietary advice. SUBJECTS: Altogether, 362 male subjects with coronary heart disease from two separate patient populations (91 + 271) were included in the study, with the mean age of 50 years and 60 years, respectively. The patients were classified into low (< or = 30 E%) or high (> 30 E%) fat intake groups. The patients with low dietary fat intake obtained on an average 10 E% less energy from fat as compared to the high dietary fat intake group. RESULTS: Overall, most patients with coronary heart disease reported difficulties in following nutritional advice when eating in social situations. Patients with high dietary fat intake reported more frequently than patients with low fat intake that they eat like other people without thinking about what they eat. On the other hand, there were no differences between the high and low fat intake groups in the barriers: eating at work, food price, shopping, taste or knowledge of nutrition. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the sensitivity to social influence is an important factor explaining noncompliance with dietary advice among patients with high dietary fat intake.     

Neighborhood Food Outlet Access and Dietary Intake among Adults with Chronic Kidney Disease: Results from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort Study

BackgroundHealthy diet is essential in the management of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and preventing related comorbidities. Food outlet access has been studied in the general population; however, the influence of the local food environment on dietary intake among people with CKD has not been evaluated.ObjectivesThis study examined the associations of food outlet density and type of outlets with dietary intake in a multicenter cohort of racially and ethnically diverse patients with CKD.MethodsThe Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort Study is a multicenter prospective study of patients with CKD that used a validated food frequency questionnaire to capture dietary intake at the baseline visit. This is a cross-sectional analysis of 2,484 participants recruited in 2003-2006 from seven Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort Study centers. Food outlet data were used to construct a count of the number of fast-food restaurants, convenience stores, and grocery stores per 10,000 population for each geocoded census block group. Multivariable linear and logistic regression models were used to evaluate the associations between measures of food outlet availability and dietary factors.ResultsThe proportion of participants living in zero–, low–, and high–food outlet density areas differed by gender, race or ethnicity, and income level. Among male subjects, living in areas with zero or the highest number of outlets was associated with having the highest caloric intakes in multivariable models. Male subjects living in areas with zero outlets consumed the highest levels of sodium and phosphorous. Female subjects living in areas with zero outlets had the lowest average intake of calories, sodium, and phosphorous. Among low-income female subjects, close proximity to more outlets was associated with higher calorie consumption. Among all participants, access to fast-food restaurants was not associated with an unhealthy diet score, and access to grocery stores was not associated with a healthy diet score.ConclusionsAverage caloric and nutrient intakes differed by outlet availability; however, there were no strong associations with type of food outlet. This should be considered when developing food-focused public health policies.     

Dietary Sources of Nutrients among US Adults, 1989 to 1991

Objective To identify major food sources of 27 nutrients and dietary constituents for US adults.Design Single 24-hour dietary recalls were used to assess intakes. From 3,970 individual foods reported, 112 groups were created on the basis of similarities in nutrient content or use. Food mixtures were disaggregated using the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) food grouping system.Subjects/setting A nationally representative sample of adults aged 19 years or older (n=10,638) from USDA's 1989-91 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals.Analyses performed For each of 27 dietary components, the contribution of each food group to intake was obtained by summing the amount provided by the food group for all respondents and dividing by total intake from all food groups for all respondents.Results This article updates previous work and is, to the authors’ knowledge, the first to provide such data for carotenes, vitamin B-12, magnesium, and copper. Beef, yeast bread, poultry, cheese, and milk were among the top 10 sources of energy, fat, and protein. The following other major sources also contributed more than 2% to energy intakes: carbohydrate: yeast bread, soft drinks/soda, cakes/cookies/quick breads/doughnuts, sugars/syrups/jams, potatoes (white), ready-to-eat cereal, and pasta; protein: pasta; and fat: margarine, salad dressings/mayonnaise, and cakes/cookies/quick breads/doughnuts. Ready-to-eat cereals, primarily because of fortification, were among the top 10 food sources for 18 of 27 nutrients.Applications/conclusions These analyses are the most current regarding food sources of nutrients and, because of disaggregation of mixtures, provide a truer picture of contributions of each food group. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998; 98:537-547.     

Dietary Associations of Household Food Insecurity among Children of Mexican Descent: Results of a Binational Study

Background/objectiveChildren of Mexican descent frequently experience household food insecurity both in the United States and Mexico. However, little is known about the associations of food insecurity with dietary intake. This study aimed to understand the level of perceived food insecurity and its association with dietary intake among children of Mexican descent residing in the United States and Mexico.DesignThis cross-sectional study utilized data from a 2006 binational study of 5-year-old children of Mexican descent living in migrant communities in California and Mexico.MethodsIn California, children were 301 participants from the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas study, a longitudinal birth cohort in a Mexican immigrant community. Mexican children (n=301) were participants in the Proyecto Mariposa study, which was designed to capture a sample of women and their children living in Mexico who closely resembled the California sample, yet who never migrated to the United States. Household food insecurity was measured using the US Department of Agriculture Food Security Scale and dietary intake was assessed with food frequency questionnaires. Analysis of variance was used to examine unadjusted and adjusted differences in total energy, nutrient intake, and consumption of food groups by household food security status.ResultsApproximately 39% of California mothers and 75% of Mexico mothers reported low or very low food security in the past 12 months (P<0.01). Children in the United States experiencing food insecurity consumed more fat, saturated fat, sweets, and fried snacks than children not experiencing food insecurity. In contrast, in Mexico food insecurity was associated with lower intake of total carbohydrates, dairy, and vitamin B-6.ConclusionsPrograms and policies addressing food insecurity in the United States and Mexico may need to take steps to address dietary intake among children in households experiencing food insecurity, possibly through education and programs to increase resources to obtain healthful foods.     

Effect of television viewing on food and nutrient intake among adolescents

ObjectiveAmong the behaviors associated with food intake, exposure to television is particularly important given the number of adolescents exposed. Also, increased time spent watching television has been associated with physical inactivity and with less desirable dietary intake among adolescents. The aim of this study was to examine the association between television viewing and dietary intake among 13-y-old adolescents.MethodsA cross-sectional evaluation was carried out in the 2003–2004 school year, including adolescents born in 1990 and enrolled in the schools of Porto, Portugal. Time spent watching TV was collected by self-administered questionnaires and dietary intake was evaluated using a food frequency questionnaire. Included in the analysis were 1436 adolescents.ResultsSpending more than 120 min per day watching TV was significantly associated with higher intake of total fat and polyunsaturated fat and with lower intake of magnesium, in both sexes. Additionally, in girls, spending more than 120 min per day watching TV was associated with lower intake of complex carbohydrates, fiber, total vitamin A, folate, vitamin C, calcium, iron, phosphorus, and potassium. In boys, higher intake of saturated fat and cholesterol was found among those spending more time watching TV.ConclusionsWe found that television viewing is associated with higher consumption of foods containing more fats and sugars and a lower consumption of fruits and vegetables. Consequently, adolescents who watched more television had a higher intake of total fat and polyunsaturated fat and a lower intake of minerals and vitamins. This dietary behavior among adolescents may have long-term health implications, not only limited to obesity.     

Early adopters of olestra-containing foods: who are they?

OBJECTIVE: To identify the characteristics of people consuming olestra-containing foods when first introduced at a test-marketing site. DESIGN: Data are from the Olestra Postmarketing Surveillance Study (OPMSS). After the introduction of olestra into a large test-marketing site, study participants received 3 follow-up telephone calls, at 3-month intervals, in which they were questioned about their diets during the previous month. SUBJECTS/SETTING: 1,007 adults in Indianapolis, Ind, who participated in a baseline clinic visit (before introduction of olestra into the food market) and completed at least 2 of 3 follow-up telephone calls (after the introduction of olestra into the market). STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Logistic regression was used to examine associations between olestra consumption and sociodemographic characteristics, health conditions, attitudes toward health and diet, and health-related behaviors. RESULTS: Olestra consumption on at least 1 of the follow-up telephone calls was reported by 41.5% of the study sample, and consumption on 2 or more telephone calls was reported by 20.0% of the sample. Factors associated with early adoption of olestra-containing foods included white ethnicity, higher education, overweight, absence of diabetes, attitudes indicative of diet and health concerns (e.g.; perceptions that there is a strong relationship between diet and disease), and a lower fat intake. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: In spite of the controversy surrounding the introduction of olestra into the food market persons with attitudes indicative of diet and health concerns were likely to be early adopters of olestra-containing foods. Dietitians and other health care providers should inquire about intake levels of foods with fat substitutes and ensure that these foods are not being consumed in excessive amounts or being consumed instead of nutrient-dense foods that are naturally low in fat.     

The nutrient and food intakes of 16–17 year old female dieters in the UK

A group of female teenage dieters was isolated from a larger national dietary survey of teenagers at 16–17 years of age. The dieting group included girls who both claimed to be dieting and who had energy intakes which were considered appropriate for weight loss, based on calculated reported energy intake to estimated basal metabolic rate cut-off points. The nutrient intakes and food choices of dieters (n= 204) were compared with a similar sample of non-dieters (n= 226) from the same cohort group. The mean reported energy intake of the dieters was 1604 kcals/day compared to 2460 kcals/day amongst non-dieters. The intakes of all the macronutrients in g/day were considerably lower amongst dieters, allowing for differences in region and social class, but when expressed as a percentage of energy intake, dieters had significantly lower intakes of fat and higher intakes of protein and intrinsic sugars, milk sugars and starch. No differences were seen in the percentage of energy provided by non-milk extrinsic sugars between the two groups. The intake of all micronutrients was substantially lower amongst dieters, allowing for regional and social class differences, and more than twice as many dieters as non-dieters failed to achieve the reference nutrient intake (RNI) for retinol equivalents, thiamin, riboflavin, folates, vitamin B12, vitamin B₆, zinc, copper and selenium. Reported food intake data for the two groups suggest that dieters consumed smaller quantities of most foods, although intakes of items associated with dieting such as low calorie soft drinks, low fat spread, skimmed milk, cottage cheese, yoghurt, salad vegetables, fruit and fruit juice were consumed in equal or greater amounts by dieters. Teenage dieters should be encouraged to include more nutrient-dense foods in their diets such as fortified breakfast cereals and low fat dairy products in order to obtain sufficient micronutrients from a lower calorie intake.     

Diet Composition Related to Body Fat in a Multivariate Study of 203 Men

Objective To assess whether usual diet (especially intake of dietary fat, carbohydrate, and fiber) was related to body fat percentage in healthy men.Design A written questionnaire provided data on demographic and lifestyle characteristics. Dietary fat, carbohydrate, protein, and fiber intakes were analyzed using the National Cancer Institute food frequency questionnaire. Percentage of body fat was determined using three-site skinfold measurements, and a submaximal treadmill test was used to estimate aerobic fitness.Subjects Subjects were 203 healthy men (14.0±5.3% mean body fat) aged 21 to 71 years. The subjects were chosen from randomly selected districts within Utah County and volunteered for free diet and fitness evaluations.Statistical analysis Multiple regression analysis determined the extent to which the individual diet components predicted body composition before and after controlling for energy intake, fitness level, body weight, and age. Multivariate analysis of variance was used to compare relative body fat groups in regard to dietary variables.Results Reported intakes of carbohydrate (P=.0085, R²=.022), complex carbohydrate (P=.0127,R²=.024), and fiber (P=.002, R²=.03) were inversely associated with body fat after controlling for age, energy intake, and fitness level. Energy intake was positively related to body fat after controlling for age, fitness level, and body weight. When subjects were separated into low-, moderate-, and high-body-fat groups, the fattest subjects reported eating significantly more dietary fat (P=.05) and less carbohydrate (P=.01), complex carbohydrate (P=.01), and fiber (P=.005) than the leanest subjects. No significant difference in reported energy intake was noted across body fat groups.Applications Composition of the diet may play a role in obesity beyond energy intake in men over the long-term. Lifestyle changes for men should probably include modifications in diet composition, especially increased consumption of foods high in complex carbohydrate and fiber. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996; 96:771–777.