Nutrient retention in foods after earth-oven cooking compared to other forms of domestic cooking: 1. Proximates,carbohydrates and dietary fibre

Effects of Pacific traditional style of cooking in an earth-oven¹ on proximate content of chicken, lamb chops, fish, cassava, taro and palusami² were investigated. Retention of proximates in earth-oven-cooked samples was compared with the retention in microwaved and oven-roasted chicken and lamb chops, microwave-cooked fish, boiled cassava and taro, and steamed-cooked palusami, the nutrient analyses of all of which were conducted during the course of this study. Water content of the samples generally decreased most upon earth-oven cooking. As much as 32.9% moisture was lost from earth-oven-cooked lean of lamb chops. Loss of water from microwave-cooked meat, ranging from 6.6 to 25.8 g/100 g, was second to the moisture loss in earth-oven-cooked meat and the least amount of moisture was lost from the gas-oven roasted meat with the values ranging from 4.4 to 22.2 g/100 g. Retention of protein ranged from 96% to 103% in all samples, the differences being not statistically significant. However, interestingly high retention values of fat were noted in separable lean of lamb chops ranging from 291% to 294%. A simple and logical explanation for this observation is adsorption of fat from separable fat, as it melted during cooking, into the muscle tissue of lamb chops. Retention of over 100% dietary fiber in all foods that had this component in the raw state was noted upon all types of cooking, except in steam-cooked palusami. This implied an increase in this component of food after cooking, whereas starch and sugars generally decreased after cooking.     

Effects of microwave cooking/reheating on nutrients and food systems: a review of recent studies

Microwave-oven technology has been improved by the use of low power. With the utilization of low-power techniques, studies showed equal or better retention of nutrients for microwave, as compared with conventional, reheated foods for thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, folacin, and ascorbic acid. Beef roasts microwaved at "simmer" were comparable with conventionally cooked roasts in sensory quality, while vegetables cooked by an institutional (1,150 w) microwave oven were superior to those cooked in a domestic (550 w) microwave oven. Microwave-cooked bacon had lower levels of nitrosamines than conventionally cooked bacon; however, the use of a new alpha-tocopherol coating system has been found to be a safe N-nitrosamine inhibitor regardless of cooking method used.     

Effect of cooking methods on the stability of thiamin and folic acid in fortified rice

Rice fortification offers great potential to deliver essential micronutrients to a large part of the world population. However, high temperatures required for cooking rice are deleterious to thermally labile micronutrients. This study evaluated the content and stability of thiamin and folic acid in fortified rice after different cooking methods (stir-frying, boiling, cooking in a microwave oven and boiling in a Food Service). The analyses were performed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The fortified rice showed the highest thiamin content (0.97?mg/kg) and retention (65.4%) when cooked in microwave oven, and for folic acid the lowest content (0.17?mg/kg) and the highest retention (96.11%) when cooked in a Food Service and stir-fried, respectively. In conclusion, the stability of thiamin and folic acid varied according to the cooking method and the stability of folic acid presented higher percentages in relation to thiamin in the different methods.      

Effect of end-user preparation methods on vitamin content of fortified humanitarian food-aid commodities

The effect of cooking on vitamin stability in common fortified food-aid commodities was evaluated: corn–soy blend (CSB), cornmeal (CM), soy-fortified bulgur (SFB), and vegetable oil (VO). Thin CSB porridge, thick CM and SFB porridges, and dumplings fried in VO were prepared using average preparation parameters determined from the data collected in the field. Vitamin levels in pre- and post-cook samples were tested. In CSB thin porridge, vitamins C and E showed cooking losses of 53% and 18%, respectively; thiamin, folic acid, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine HCl, vitamin A, and vitamin B12 showed no significant losses. In CM thick porridge, thiamin, folic acid, riboflavin, and vitamin A showed no significant changes during cooking. In SFB, vitamin A was reduced by 33%, while thiamin, folic acid, and riboflavin showed no significant changes during cooking. In VO that was used to prepare dumplings, vitamin A losses of 6% occurred after one frying cycle. Vitamin A content of the dumplings, however, increased significantly during frying. With the exception of vitamins C and E in CSB and vitamin A in SFB and VO, typical cooking had little effect on vitamin stability.     

Proximate Contents,Losses and Gains of Fat,Protein and Water Comparing Raw,Hospital- and Household-Cooked Pork Cuts

The contents of fat, protein and water were determined in raw and corresponding cooked pork cuts: three joints with rind (thin belly, neck boneless, loin boneless), two joints without rind (neck boneless, loin boneless) and three sliced joints (thick belly, neck, pork chops with and without bread). The meat was cooked in a household and a hospital kitchen. Cuts were cooked in oven without added fat and in pan with fat. For oven-cooked cuts no differences in fat losses between kitchen types were found (household kitchen: −4.5±2.9%; hospital kitchen: −4.9±3.4%;P=0.7), while fat losses for pan-cooked cuts differed slightly (household kitchen: +1.9±2.4%; hospital kitchen: +0.5±2.1%;P=0.02). Breaded pork chops gained more fat during cooking than non-breaded pork chops (+3.5±2.0 and +0.3±0.7%, respectively;P=0.02). Fat loss from neck and loin (whole joints) cooked without fat was somewhat higher than fat loss from the corresponding sliced joints cooked with fat (non-breaded) (−1.6±0.9 and +0.1±1.2%, respectively;P=0.001). Cooking causes small, if any, losses of meat protein. Water losses showed wide variations (range: −13.4±2.9 to −39.9±3.6%) and accounted for a major part of total weight loss. Positive correlations between water loss (r=0.40;P=0.01) and weight loss (r=0.47;P=0.01), and internal temperature could be demonstrated. An increase in the fat content calculated per 100 g of cooked meat was seen for all the cuts, indicating that losses of mainly water were relatively larger than fat losses. Fat (wt%) in raw and cooked meat for seven of nine cuts correlated significantly. Their pooled linear regression equation was as follows: fat in cooked meat (wt%)=1.02×fat in raw meat (wt%)+2.97; thus, fat content of cooked pork meat can be estimated irrespective of cooking methods.     

The vitamin content of retail vegetables in the UK

Raw and cooked vegetables were sampled at the retail level over a two-year period and were analysed for selected vitamins. Thiamin, riboflavin, total B6 (pyridoxamine, pyridoxal and pyridoxine) and nicotinic acid were measured by HPLC, total ascorbate (ascorbic and dehydroascorbic acids) by fluorimetric determination, total folate by microbiological assay and carotenoids by spectrometry. The results were compared to values in McCance and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods and used to calculate the contribution to average daily intakes of these vitamins in the UK diet. Revised data for ascorbate, B6 and carotenoids were in good agreement with food table data, thiamin values were on average 2–3 times higher, and riboflavin and nicotinic acid values 20–50% lower. Folate results were generally higher than Food Table values for vegetables. If the revised folate values for potatoes are also taken into consideration, then the contribution that vegetables make to the average daily intake for folate may have been underestimated by about 20%. Average cooking losses ( boiling and frying ) were also in good agreement with previous data.     

Oxalate content of cormels of Japanese taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) and the effect of cooking

Taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) is a major starchy food crop in parts of Asia and the Pacific Islands and is grown as a minor crop in New Zealand. Soluble, insoluble and total oxalate content of the cormels of Japanese taro cultivars, Akame, Ishikawa-wase, Yamato-wase and an unnamed cultivar were determined by HPLC following hot water (80 °C) or hot acid (0.2 mol/L HCL) extractions. Oxalate analysis was carried out on the peeled raw, boiled (40 min) and baked corms (180 °C for 40 min). Akame contained the highest level of total oxalate (171.4±11.4 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW)) in the raw tissue and was significantly higher than the other three cultivars (P<0.001). The raw tissue of the four cultivars contained a mean of 60.6% soluble oxalates; boiling reduced the level of soluble oxalate in the cooked tissue to below detectable levels as soluble oxalates leached into the cooking water. Baking led to a significant reduction in the moisture content of the taro concentrating oxalates in the cooked tissue (overall mean, 229.0±34.4 mg/100 g FW). The results from this study suggest that baked taro corms contain moderate amounts of oxalates.     

A comparison of the nutrient content of uncooked and cooked lean from New Zealand beef and lamb

The composition in terms of proximate analysis, cholesterol, vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids of the lean tissue of 17 beef cuts and 18 lamb cuts was determined on within-cut composite samples (each containing lean tissue from at least 7 animals), following the knife-separation of raw and cooked cuts into lean, fat, and bone. Composite lean samples for 4 beef cuts and 4 lamb cuts were also analysed for amino-acid composition. For analysis, different cuts were the experimental unit as individual animal data were not available. The composition of lean from beef and lamb was shown to be highly desirable with a high nutrient density (mg/kJ) for many nutrients. Although lean from beef and lamb were very similar in many respects, several significant differences were detected. Changes in composition with cooking were largely eliminated when considered on a dry-matter basis, but proportions of the n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids increased with cooking (P < 0.05). The amino acid composition was similar for lean from beef and lamb but showed small deviations from recommended patterns for human nutrition with branched chain amino acids being limiting.     

Influence of cooking method on the nutrient composition of Spanish light lamb

Thirty lambs were used to assess the influence of cooking methods on the nutritional composition of Spanish light lamb. With this aim, the left legs without shank, deboned and untrimmed of any adipose tissue, were analyzed raw. The right legs were analyzed after undertaking one of three cooking procedures: stewing, grilling or roasting. All cooking procedures increased the percentage of fat compared to the raw meat (9.6%), for equivalent sample quantities. This increment was mainly due to the increase in dry matter, from 28.5% in the raw product to 41.6% in roasted or stewed meat, caused by the water losses during cooking. Stewing caused the highest increase in fat, possibly due to fat absorption from the ingredients used in the recipe. This implied an extraordinary increment on the percentage of linoleic acid increasing from 5% to 11% of total fatty acids. n-3 fatty acids were less affected by cooking than n-6 fatty acids. Stewing could improve the fat quality according to cardiovascular indices, although the excess levels of fat should be taken into account. Moreover, cooking also caused the disappearance of B-vitamins to a higher extent than minerals, when expressed on a dry-matter basis. The composition of roasted or grilled lamb was very similar, even when cooking time was very different.     

Blood vitamin and lipid levels in overweight and obese women.

The study was carried out on 102 obese and overweight women, average age 41.5 years, and 33 control non-obese women matched for age. Fasting venous blood vitamins (ascorbic acid, tocopherol, retinol, carotenes, thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid, pyridoxine), lipids (total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, total lipids) and haematological indices were determined. Significantly lower serum antioxidant vitamin levels and a higher prevalence of vitamin deficiency were found in the study group. The study confirmed the high risk of dyslipoproteinaemia and the high frequency of elevated blood pressure in obese women. A correlation between ascorbic acid status, degree of obesity and the incidence of elevated blood pressure was demonstrated.     

Regular moderate exercise training can alter the urinary excretion of thiamin and riboflavin

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESPhysical exercise promotes energy producing pathways requiring thiamin and riboflavin as a coenzyme. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of regular exercise training on urinary excretion of thiamin and riboflavin.MATERIALS/METHODSFifty rats were randomly assigned to one of two groups: non-exercise training (NT, n = 25) and regular exercise training (ET, n = 25) for 5 weeks. The rats performed moderate exercise on a treadmill (0.5-0.8 km/hour) for 30 min/day, 5 days/week. Twenty-four hour urine samples were collected at the end of the 0 week, 3^rd week, and 5^th week of training and thiamin and riboflavin were analyzed.RESULTSNo significant differences in thiamin and riboflavin intakes for each week were observed between the NT and ET groups. Urinary thiamin excretion of each group was the highest at the 5^th week compared to the levels at 0 and 3^rd week. Urinary thiamin at the 5^th week was significantly lower in the ET group than in the NT group. Urinary riboflavin excretion was increased by training duration, however, no difference was observed between NT and ET for each week. At 0 and 3^rd week, no significant relationships were observed between dietary intake and urinary excretion of thiamin and riboflavin, however, at the 5^th week, urinary excretion was significantly increased by dietary intake only in the NT group (P < 0.05). Thiamin excretion of both NT and ET groups was significantly increased with riboflavin excretion at the 5^th week (P < 0.01).CONCLUSIONRegular moderate exercise training increased urinary excretion of thiamin. Dietary intakes and urinary excretions of thiamin and riboflavin showed positive correlation in both the exercise training and non-exercise training groups as the exercise training period went by, while the correlations in the exercise training group were weaker than those in the non-exercise training group. Therefore, regular exercise training can alter the urinary excretion of thiamin and riboflavin in rats.     

Beeswax and its unsaponifiable components as natural preservatives for butter and cottonseed oils

During recent years importance of B complex vitamins, beta-carotene and vitamin C has been realised in terms of their antioxidative and anticarcinogenic properties. Fruits and vegetables are the rich sources of these vitamins. However, there are considerable cooking losses of vitamins, and information on vitamin contents of cooked foods is essential for assessing the adequacy of vitamin intakes. Secondly, there is a growing trend to consume ready-to-eat foods such as stuffed pancakes (samosa, patties), pastries, French fries; replacing traditional foods for lunch or dinner like roti, vegetable curry, bread, non-vegetarian items. Ready-to-eat foods are considered to give empty calories rather than a balanced diet. A study was undertaken to estimate ascorbic acid, folic acid, riboflavin, thiamine and betacarotene of 263 cooked food samples and 260 meals representing dietary patterns of Asia, Africa, Europe, USA and Latin America by spectrophotometry and photoflurometry. A broad range of beta-carotene (84-2038 mcg%), riboflavin (0.01-0.48 mg%), thiamine (0.04-0.36 mg%), vitamin C (1-28 mg%) and folate (26-111mcg%) was observed in individual foods. Bakery products and sweets were found to be poor sources and green leafy vegetables and fruits were good sources of these five vitamins. The differences between ready-to-eat foods and meals consumed during lunch or dinner were prominent for beta-carotene, ascorbic acid, riboflavin and folic acid (P < 0.05). The cooking losses were 34.6, 30, 52.2, 45.9 and 32.2% in case of ascorbic acid, thiamine, riboflavin, beta-carotene and folic acid respectively. Irrespective of whether it is ready-to-eat or a lunch/dinner food item, the contribution of vegetables in the preparations was found to make a marked impact on the vitamin profile. While results justify the concept of a food pyramid, emphasis needs to be given to types of fruits and vegetables rich in vitamins; preferably in their uncooked form, rather than considering their total consumption.     

Nutritional status in elderly population in kibbutzim

This study was conducted in order to assess the nutritional status of thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, carotene, retinol, ascorbic acid, plasma iron, hemoglobin and plasma albumin of the elderly living in two cooperative farms (Kibbutzim), in Israel. Blood samples from elderly subjects aged 60 to 85 (33 women, 26 men), were collected for analysis. Thiamin, riboflavin and pyridoxine status were assessed by using enzymatic activation coefficient. Transketolase was used for determining thiamin status, glutathione reductase for determining riboflavin status and glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase for pyridoxine status. Transketolase activation coefficient ranged from 1.05-1.59 with a mean 1.18 and SEM 0.02, glutathione reductase coefficient ranged from 1.08-1.50 with a mean 1.25 and SEM 0.07 and glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase activation coefficient ranged from 1.71-2.15 with a mean 1.83 and SEM 0.06. Deficient levels were found in the following: Leucocyte ascorbic acid 5% of the population, hemoglobin 18%, plasma iron 20%, carotene 32% and plasma retinol 20%, thiamin 14% and riboflavin 32%. No deficient state was found in pyridoxine.     

Vitamin profile of cooked foods: how healthy is the practice of ready-to-eat foods?

During recent years importance of B complex vitamins, beta-carotene and vitamin C has been realised in terms of their antioxidative and anticarcinogenic properties. Fruits and vegetables are the rich sources of these vitamins. However, there are considerable cooking losses of vitamins, and information on vitamin contents of cooked foods is essential for assessing the adequacy of vitamin intakes. Secondly, there is a growing trend to consume ready-to-eat foods such as stuffed pancakes (samosa, patties), pastries, French fries; replacing traditional foods for lunch or dinner like roti, vegetable curry, bread, non-vegetarian items. Ready-to-eat foods are considered to give empty calories rather than a balanced diet. A study was undertaken to estimate ascorbic acid, folic acid, riboflavin, thiamine and beta-carotene of 263 cooked food samples and 260 meals representing dietary patterns of Asia, Africa, Europe, USA and Latin America by spectrophotometry and photoflurometry. A broad range of beta-carotene (84-2038 mcg%), riboflavin (0.01-0.48 mg%), thiamine (0.04-0.36 mg%), vitamin C (1-28 mg%) and folate (26-111 mcg%) was observed in individual foods. Bakery products and sweets were found to be poor sources and green leafy vegetables and fruits were good sources of these five vitamins. The differences between ready-to-eat foods and meals consumed during lunch or dinner were prominent for beta-carotene, ascorbic acid, riboflavin and folic acid (P < 0.05). The cooking losses were 34.6, 30, 52.2, 45.9 and 32.2% in case of ascorbic acid, thiamine, riboflavin, beta-carotene and folic acid respectively. Irrespective of whether it is ready-to-eat or a lunch/dinner food item, the contribution of vegetables in the preparations was found to make a marked impact on the vitamin profile. While results justify the concept of a food pyramid, emphasis needs to be given to types of fruits and vegetables rich in vitamins; preferably in their uncooked form, rather than considering their total consumption.     

Nutritional composition of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as affected by microwave cooking and other traditional cooking methods

The effects of microwave cooking and other traditional cooking methods such as boiling and autoclaving on the nutritional composition and anti-nutritional factors of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) were studied. Cooking treatments caused significant (P<0.05) decreases in fat, total ash, carbohydrate fractions (reducing sugars, sucrose, raffinose and stachyose, while verbascose was completely eliminated after cooking treatments), antinutritional factors (trypsin inhibitor, haemagglutinin activity, tannins, saponins and phytic acid), minerals and B-vitamins. Cooking treatments decreased the concentrations of lysine, tryptophan, total aromatic and sulfur-containing amino acids. However, cooked chickpeas were still higher in lysine, isoleucine and total aromatic amino acid contents than the FAO/WHO reference. The losses in B-vitamins and minerals in chickpeas cooked by microwaving were smaller than those cooked by boiling and autoclaving. In-vitro protein digestibility, protein efficiency ratio and essential amino acid index were improved by all cooking treatments. The chemical score and limiting amino acid of chickpeas subjected to the various cooking treatments varied considerably, depending on the type of treatment. Based on these results, microwave cooking is recommended for chickpea preparation, not only for improving nutritional quality (by reducing the level of antinutritional and flatulence factors as well as increasing in-vitro protein digestibility and retention rates of both B-vitamins and minerals), but also for reducing cooking time.     

不同烹调方法下马铃薯中部分维生素和矿物质保留因子的变化

目的研究马铃薯在不同烹调方法下各种维生素和矿物质元素的保留因子。方法将马铃薯去皮、洗涤、切割,以炒、烧、焯、炸、蒸等方法进行烹调,分别记录烹调前后的重量,采用相应的国标方法测定烹调前后马铃薯中几种维生素和矿物质元素的含量,并计算相应的保留因子。结果维生素C在烧马铃薯时保留率较高,在炒、焯、炸、蒸时损失较多;硫胺素、核黄素、维生素B6、烟酸在炒、烧、蒸时保留率较高,在焯和炸时有较大的损失;矿物质元素钾、钙、磷等在焯时损失较多,而在其它烹调方式下损失较少。结论马铃薯经烹调后各种维生素和矿物质元素都有不同程度的损失;同一种营养素在不同的烹调方法下保留因子也存在一定的差异。     

Vitamins and trace metals status in non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus.

The status of various vitamins and trace metals in plasma of 100 Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus subjects was compared to those of 112 age and sex matched healthy subjects. The plasma concentration of riboflavin, pyridoxine and folic acid were found to be decreased in the diabetic patients while retinol and ascorbic acid were relatively increased, in comparison to the healthy subjects. However in the Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus subjects the mean plasma concentration of all the metals and vitamins except for riboflavin were within the range of normal values. In spite of these findings, the percent of diabetic patients with various vitamin or metal deficiencies, e.g. riboflavin, carotene, thiamin, retinol, zinc and iron were significantly higher than those in the healthy population. We conclude that vitamin and metal deficiency is common in Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus subjects.     

Potential of Traditionally Cooked Green Leafy Vegetables as Natural Sources for Supplementation of Eight Micronutrients in Vegetarian Diets

The potential of 24 green leafy vegetables (GLV) in cooked form was assessed for the contents of eight micronutrients; bioavailability of iron, zinc and copper; and for proximate principles. The bioavailable densities of iron, zinc and copper (1.3±1.2, 1.1±0.5, 0.7±0.3 mg/1000 kcal) in individual GLV and GLV-based meals were higher than those in meals based on cereals or legumes. Average bioavailable iron density in particular, was 3.6 times higher (P<0.01) than the average value for composite cereal–legume-based meals indicating GLV as promising fortificants of iron for vegetarians. Contents per 100 g cooked weight of beta-carotene (80–5920 μg), ascorbic acid (2.2–58.2 mg), folic acid (35.6–185 μg), riboflavin (0.03–0.08 mg) and thiamin (0.04–0.46 mg) were found to show large variability among different GLV but the average levels of beta-carotene and ascorbic acid were significantly higher than the other food classes (P<0.05). The contents of the vitamins were compared in cereal–legume meals (12), cereal–fruit vegetable meals (16), and cereal–GLV meals (30) in another experiment. The results indicate a highly significant and 8.7-13.1-fold rise in beta-carotene levels, and a 1.7–2.3-fold rise in the levels of folic acid and riboflavin in GLV meals as compared to other meals indicating the potential for increasing these three vitamin levels using GLV.     

Vitamin losses: Retention during heat treatment and continual changes expressed by mathematical models

Processing and cooking conditions cause variable losses of vitamins. Losses vary widely according to cooking method and type of food. Degradation of vitamins depends on specific conditions during the culinary process, e.g., temperature, presence of oxygen, light, moisture, pH, and, of course, duration of heat treatment. The most labile vitamins during culinary processes are retinol (vegetable boiling, 33% retention), vitamin C (the most damaging factors are cooking and oxidation), folate (leaching into the cooking water, 40% retention), and thiamin (cooking, retention 20–80%). Niacin, biotin, and pantothenic acid are quite stable, but information on some vitamins, especially vitamins D and K, is incomplete. The percentage losses of some nutrients in foods after cooking treatment were frequently reported: not continual changes during heat treatment, only modifications at the beginning and after heat treatment. Changes of nutrients in food during the culinary process have not yet been sufficiently investigated. A few authors have attempted to summarize the kinetic data which can be used to describe the time–temperature effect on nutrients.     

Changes in thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, beta-carotene, vitamins, C, A, D and E status of French Elderly Subjects during the first year of institutionalization

Vitamin status was assessed in 26 recently institutionalized elderly subjects by combining dietary and biochemical measurements of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, beta-carotene, vitamins C, A, D and E at admission (P1), and 1.5 (P2), 3.0 (P3), 4.5 (P4), 6.0 (P5), 12 (P6) months later. At admission, except for vitamin A, mean vitamin intakes were lower than the 1992 French Recommended Dietary Allowance. Thiamin, vitamins C, A and E status seemed nearly satisfactory as less than one-fourth of the population sample had blood values lower than the cut-off point for thiamin (erythrocyte thiamin pyrophosphate < 0.17 mumol/l), vitamin A (serum retinol < 1.05 mumol/l), vitamin C (serum vitamin C < 11.3 mumol/l) and vitamin E (serum alpha-tocopherol < 9.3 mumol/l) or higher than the cut-off point for thiamin (erythrocyte transketolase activity coefficient > 1.19). Almost half of the subjects for riboflavin, and almost all non supplemented subjects for vitamin D were in risk of vitamin deficiency (46% had an erythrocyte glutathione reductase activity coefficient > 1.19 and 72% had a plasma 25(OH)D3 < 25 nmol/l). During the study, vitamins status remained unchanged for riboflavin, niacin, vitamins A, D and E, improved for vitamin C (P = 0.004) or impaired for thiamin (P = 0.008). Thus, institutionalization seemed to have no effect on riboflavin, niacin, vitamins A, D and E status and a slight effect on thiamin and vitamin C status.