Use of medical services and treatment for panic disorder with agoraphobia and for social phobia.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the medical services and treatment for anxiety disorders reported by patients who had either panic disorder with agoraphobia or else social phobia. DESIGN: Archival research of consecutive records of psychiatric interviews conducted between January 1990 and December 1991. The records were examined by a trained research assistant who had had no contact with the patients. PATIENTS: One hundred patients who had panic disorder with agoraphobia and twenty-eight patients who had social phobia. SETTING: An anxiety disorders clinic in a university-affiliated psychiatric institute. OUTCOME MEASURES: Variables related to the use of medical services included history of hospitalization, emergency department visits and referrals to specialists. Variables related to treatment included types of medication received, whether behaviour therapy was received and types of health care professionals seen. RESULTS: Almost 30% of the patients with panic disorder and more than 20% of those with social phobia had a history of a major depressive episode at some time in their lives; 30% and 25% respectively had a current nonpsychiatric medical diagnosis. In the past year nearly one-third of both patient groups had seen three or more different health care professionals and almost one-fifth of those with panic disorder had gone to a general hospital emergency department. Of the patients with panic disorder 9% had previously been assessed by a cardiologist and 17% by a neurologist. At least two-thirds of each group had received benzodiazepines, often for use as needed. Although most of the patients in both groups had been seen by mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, few had received optimal treatment. Of those with panic disorder, only 15% had received the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine, 13% alprazolam and 11% cognitive-behavioural therapy. Only 4% of the patients with social phobia had received cognitive-behavioural therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Both groups of patients, and particularly those with panic disorder, are frequent users of medical services. Although most have had contact with mental health professionals, few have received appropriate treatment. Benzodiazepines appear to be overprescribed, whereas forms of treatment that have been shown to reduce the use of medical services, such as cognitive-behavioural therapy, are infrequently given.     

Follow-up status of patients with angiographically normal coronary arteries and panic disorder

Cardiology patients with normal coronary angiography demonstrate continuing and substantial social, health, and work disability. We hypothesized that the diagnosis of panic disorder would mark those for whom continuing disability is most likely. We interviewed 72 such patients at the time of their normal angiogram, and then again an average of 38 months later. Those with panic disorder (n = 36) demonstrated significantly more disability at follow-up than did the other study patients. We conclude that those patients with normal angiograms who have panic disorder are more disabled than those who do not have panic disorder. Panic disorder in psychiatric samples has been shown to be highly treatable. Therefore, early identification and treatment of panic disorder in this group is likely to minimize the suffering associated with this condition.     

社交焦虑障碍和惊恐障碍对患者生活质量的不同影响

目的比较社交焦虑障碍和惊恐障碍对患者生活质量影响的差异性。方法采用健康状况问卷(SF-36)对无明显其他精神障碍的35例社交焦虑障碍患者和35例惊恐障碍患者的生活质量进行评定。结果与正常常模SF-36比较,社交焦虑障碍组在社会功能和精神健康方面受影响明显(P<0.05);惊恐障碍在生理机能、生理职能和精神健康3个方面受影响明显(P<0.05)。结论未合并其他精神障碍的社交焦虑障碍主要影响社会功能和精神健康方面的生活质量;惊恐障碍在躯体和精神两方面都受到影响。     

Assessment of early morning serum cortisol levels in adult male patients with alcohol-related disorders

BackgroundAlcohol-related disorders are a major health problem among Indian male professionals because of the unique nature of socioeconomic and demographic conditions. Various studies have highlighted the association between alcohol-related disorders and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction, but the evidence accrued so far is inconclusive. In our study, we have assessed early morning serum total cortisol concentration among Indian adult male population affected with alcohol-related disorder.MethodsA case-based cross-sectional study in which all consecutive patients admitted in the psychiatry ward of a tertiary care hospital with diagnosis of ‘alcohol-related disorders’, who were meeting all the inclusion criteria, and who had none of the exclusion criteria were part of the study. Diseased controls and healthy controls were chosen by applying strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. Serum early morning (0400 h) total cortisol levels were estimated using automated quantitative enzyme-linked fluorescent assay technique.Results98 psychiatric patients and 50 healthy controls were evaluated. Out of these 98 patients 66 patients were diagnosed cases of alcohol-related disorder. Morning serum total cortisol levels in patients with alcohol-related disorders was found to be significantly different from healthy controls.ConclusionOur study suggests that alcohol-related disorders are associated with chronic changes in HPA axis and significant alteration of early morning serum total cortisol levels were demonstrated in this group of patients.     

Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing.

CONTEXT: Disasters expose unselected populations to traumatic events and can be used to study the mental health effects. The Oklahoma City, Okla, bombing is particularly significant for the study of mental health sequelae of trauma because its extreme magnitude and scope have been predicted to render profound psychiatric effects on survivors. OBJECTIVE: To measure the psychiatric impact of the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City on survivors of the direct blast, specifically examining rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), diagnostic comorbidity, functional impairment, and predictors of postdisaster psychopathology. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Of 255 eligible adult survivors selected from a confidential registry, 182 (71%) were assessed systematically by interviews approximately 6 months after the disaster, between August and December 1995. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Diagnosis of 8 psychiatric disorders, demographic data, level of functioning, treatment, exposure to the event, involvement of family and friends, and physical injuries, as ascertained by the Diagnostic Interview Schedule/Disaster Supplement. RESULTS: Forty-five percent of the subjects had a postdisaster psychiatric disorder and 34.3% had PTSD. Predictors included disaster exposure, female sex (for any postdisaster diagnosis, 55% vs 34% for men; chi2 = 8.27; P=.004), and predisaster psychiatric disorder (for PTSD, 45% vs 26% for those without predisaster disorder; chi2 = 6.86; P=.009). Onset of PTSD was swift, with 76% reporting same-day onset. The relatively uncommon avoidance and numbing symptoms virtually dictated the diagnosis of PTSD (94% meeting avoidance and numbing criteria had full PTSD diagnosis) and were further associated with psychiatric comorbidity, functional impairment, and treatment received. Intrusive reexperience and hyperarousal symptoms were nearly universal, but by themselves were generally unassociated with other psychopathology or impairment in functioning. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that a focus on avoidance and numbing symptoms could have provided an effective screening procedure for PTSD and could have identified most psychiatric cases early in the acute postdisaster period. Psychiatric comorbidity further identified those with functional disability and treatment need. The nearly universal yet distressing intrusive reexperience and hyperarousal symptoms in the majority of nonpsychiatrically ill persons may be addressed by nonmedical interventions of reassurance and support.     

Surviving social assistance: 12-month prevalence of depression in sole-support parents receiving social assistance

BACKGROUND: Although it is generally recognized that poverty and depression can coexist among single parents receiving social assistance, there is insufficient research on this topic. The goals of this study therefore were to investigate the prevalence, correlates and health care expenditures associated with depression among sole-support parents receiving social assistance. METHODS: Sole-support parents who had applied for social assistance in 2 regions of southwestern Ontario were included in the study. Depression was diagnosed with the 1994 University of Michigan Composite International Diagnostic Interview short forms. RESULTS: The 12-month prevalence rate of depressive disorder among the parents interviewed was 45.4% (345/760). A total of 247 (32.5%) had major depressive disorder alone, 19 (2.5%) had dysthymia, and 79 (10.4%) had both major depressive disorder and dysthymia ("double depression"). Those with major depressive disorder, particularly double depression, had significantly higher rates of coexisting psychiatric disorder than those without depressive disorders. Parents with depression reported higher rates of developmental delay and behaviour problems in their children than parents without depression. Expenditures for health care services were higher for parents with depression and for their children than for parents without depressive disorder and their children. INTERPRETATION: Single parents receiving social assistance have high rates of depression. Such parents with depression also have higher rates of other psychiatric disorders and higher expenditures for health care services, and their children have higher rates of developmental delay and behaviour problems.     

Psychiatric morbidity in patients with chronic airflow obstruction

Fifty consecutive patients with chronic airflow obstruction who were admitted to a respiratory unit were assessed medically and psychiatrically. A high rate of psychiatric morbidity (58%) was detected with panic and other anxiety disorders (34%) being particularly prevalent. Various physiological and psychological reasons for the high rate of anxiety disorders are discussed.     

Psychiatric morbidity and referral rate among medical in-patients at Kenyatta National Hospital

Psychiatric morbidity among 200 medical in-patients at Kenyatta National Hospital was determined by a two-stage screening procedure, using the Self Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ) and standardized psychiatric interview (SPI). 44 (22%) of the total sample of 200 patients who were interviewed met the pre-established criteria for psychiatric morbidity; of these 59% comprised affective disorders. 4 (9%) of the psychiatric morbidity cases were referred for psychiatric evaluation. Referral seemed to be related to severity of illness and a previous history of psychiatric illness. There was no evidence in the notes that the psychiatric problems had been detected, treated or dealt with in any other way by the medical team in 34 patients out of 44 with psychiatric morbidity. Increase in the mental health input in the training of all health workers with emphasis on recognition and management of some of the commoner psychological problems is recommended.     

Heart and mind: (2) psychotropic and cardiovascular therapeutics

There is a plausible biological basis for the association between psychiatric morbidity and cardiovascular disease. Anxiety, panic disorder, and depression are common in patients with coronary heart disease and hypertension. Despite this evidence there is poor recognition of anxiety disorders and depression in primary care and hospital medical practice. Concern also surrounds the use of psychotropic drugs in patients with cardiovascular disease. In the first of the two articles on this subject, we highlighted the current evidence regarding the association between cardiovascular and psychotropic conditions. In this second article, we discuss the interaction of the drugs used in the management of these two varied but commonly coexistent group of diseases as well as their relative effects on either system. Finally, we summarise the data regarding the safe use of these medications based on the recommendations from the currently available evidence.     

An overview of women seeking substance abuse treatment in Oklahoma

Current studies of neurocognitive function in alcoholics are generally restricted to a relatively small subsample of persons seeking treatment. Subjects are typically excluded from study if reporting signs or symptoms of possibly confounding disorders such as comorbid psychiatric disorders, medical, or neurologic disorders. Thus, the question arises as to whether those individuals who actually participate in these reported studies are representative of the larger population of unselected persons. Studies of women are particularly subject to this concern due to higher rates of comorbid medical and psychiatric disorders in women. The current study was directed to contrasting treatment-seeking women who either were or were not selected for a laboratory study of neurocognitive function. Specifically, we compared subgroups of women identified on the basis of the presence of an alcohol use disorder and/or being selected for study. A total of 638 women were available for comparison. Contrary to anticipated concerns, analysis of basic demographic, alcohol and drug use, and affective/cognitive measures revealed considerable similarities among the groups. Consistent with other literature, the large majority of these women reported a family history of alcohol use disorders. They also reported a preference for stimulants as opposed to other illicit substances as evidenced in self-report of their most frequently used drug in the six months prior to treatment (excluding alcohol). These findings suggest that current selection procedures, although necessarily biasing samples in response to specific questions, do not result in samples that are significantly different from the majority of treatment-seeking women, at least on the basis of demographic and affective variables. Furthermore, as described herein, these findings have specific indications for primary care assessment and treatment referral.     

What determines patients' satisfaction with their mental health care and quality of life?

Objectives: This study investigated whether patients'' satisfaction with their mental health care and quality of life is related to their age, gender, psychiatric diagnosis, and duration of mental disorder. Method: 120 adults of working age who were receiving input from a community mental health team in North Yorkshire were invited to complete the Carers'' and User''s Expectations of Services, User Version (CUES-U) questionnaire. This 16 item self rated outcome measure covers the issues that those using mental health services have identified as being their priorities. Results: CUES-U ratings were lowest for "Social life" (49% satisfied) and highest for "Relationships with physical health workers" (88% satisfied). Satisfaction with psychiatric services correlated significantly with patients'' age (Spearman''s r = 0.444, p<0.001) and their satisfaction in other areas of their lives such as housing, money, and relationships (r = 0.575, p<0.001). Those with psychotic disorders rated their quality of life as higher than other respondents (median total satisfaction score 12 v 9, Mann-Whitney U = 377, p = 0.001). Gender and duration of disorder were unrelated to service satisfaction. Conclusions: Patient satisfaction ratings have been promoted as an outcome measure when evaluating the quality of their mental health services. Certain factors influencing an individual''s satisfaction with the care provided (such as their age and general quality of life) are not directly under the control of professionals.     

惊恐障碍临床分析

目的了解惊恐发作患者临床特点及就医行为。方法采用自编调查表,通过面谈逐一填写。结果初次惊恐发作的年龄集中在20～39岁之间。初次惊恐发作的场所在家发作者40例,占66.7%,男女之间有显著性差异。初次治惊恐发作到本院就医期间平均(10.52±12.31)月。来院就医时合并抑郁障碍者20例,占33.3%。临床表现在二个症状上男女之间有显著性差异。结论初次惊恐发作场所在家发作者最多,男女之间有显著性差异。临床表现在恶心或腹部难受,发热或寒战症状上男女之间有显著性差异。     

Incidence of postpartum abuse in women with a history of abuse during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether women with a history of physical abuse during pregnancy have an increased incidence of physical abuse in the 3 months after delivery. DESIGN: Follow-up survey. SETTINGS: A primary care community-based prenatal clinic, private obstetricians' and family physicians' offices in a large city, family physicians' offices in a small town and a tertiary care university teaching hospital. PATIENTS: Thirty-six women identified in a study of physical abuse during pregnancy; 30 (83.3%) agreed to participate. OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of incidents of physical abuse during the 3 months before conception, during the first, second and third trimesters of pregnancy and during the 3 months after delivery. General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) score to determine psychologic distress and predict psychiatric morbidity. Interview to diagnose psychiatric disorders according to defined criteria. RESULTS: Twenty-seven (90.0%) of the 30 participants reported a total of 57 incidents of abuse in the 3 months after delivery. For each period, the mean number of incidents of abuse per woman abused in that period was calculated and was found to be significantly higher for the postpartum period (2.1) than for the 3 months before conception (1.5) or for the first, second or third trimesters (1.4, 1.3 and 1.1) (F = 18.87, p < 0.001, one-way repeated measures analysis of variance.) This finding was confirmed by the Newman-Keuls post-hoc test, which also showed that the means for the preconception period and the three trimesters did not differ significantly between themselves. Nineteen (95%) of the 20 women who were abused in the first trimester were abused in the 3 months after delivery. Fourteen women (51.9%) obtained medical care for injuries from the postpartum abuse. The mean GHQ score was 7.7 (a score of 3 or more suggests psychiatric morbidity); from the psychiatric interview, 16 women (53.3%) were found to meet the diagnostic criteria for a major depressive episode, 9 (30.0%) had another psychiatric disorder, and 5 (16.7%) had no psychiatric disorder. CONCLUSIONS: A significant increase was found in the mean number of incidents of physical abuse per woman abused during the 3 months after delivery over the mean number of incidents per woman abused during each of the three other periods. Physicians should be alert to physical abuse in postpartum women and should make specific enquiries if there is a history of abuse, current injury or depression.     

The economic costs of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

Persons with diabetes experience elevated risks of a variety of other illnesses-- including circulatory, visual, neurological, renal, and skin disorders--relative to their nondiabetic peers. Previous estimates of the economic burden of diabetes, however, have not taken full account of this related morbidity and mortality and have therefore understated the cost to the nation due to this disease. Accordingly, we estimated the economic costs of type II, or non-insulin-dependent, diabetes mellitus, reflecting its contribution to the total burden of disease in the United States. In 1986, non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus was responsible for $11.6 billion in health care expenditures, including $6.8 billion for diabetic care and $4.8 billion attributable to an excess prevalence of related (principally cardiovascular) conditions. The human toll of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus included 144,000 deaths -- about 6.8% of total US mortality -- and the total disability of 951,000 persons. The total economic burden of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in 1986, including health care expenditures and productivity forgone due to disability and premature mortality, was $19.8 billion.     

Thorax deformity, joint hypermobility, and anxiety disorders

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between thorax deformities, panic disorder, and joint hypermobility METHODS: The study includes 52 males diagnosed with thorax deformity, and 40 healthy male controls without thorax deformity, in Tatvan Bitlis and Isparta, Turkey. The study was carried out from 2004 to 2006. The teleradiographic and thoracic lateral images of the subjects were evaluated to obtain the Beighton scores; subjects' psychiatric conditions were evaluated using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-1), and the Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAM-A) was applied in order to determine the anxiety levels. Both the subjects and controls were compared in sociodemographic, anxiety levels, and joint mobility levels. In addition, males with joint hypermobility and thorax deformity were compared to the group with thorax deformity without joint hypermobility. RESULTS: A significant difference in HAM-A scores was found between the groups with thorax deformity and without. In addition, 21 subjects with thorax deformity met the joint hypermobility criteria in the group with thorax deformity, and 7 subjects without thorax deformity met the joint hypermobility criteria in the group without thorax deformity, according to Beighton scoring. The Beighton scores of the subjects with thorax deformity were significantly different from those of the group without deformity. Additionally, anxiety scores of the males with thorax deformity and joint hypermobility were found higher than males with thorax deformity without joint hypermobility. CONCLUSION: Anxiety disorders, particularly panic disorder, have a significantly higher distribution in male subjects with thorax deformity compared to the healthy control group. In addition, the anxiety level of males with thorax deformity and joint hypermobility is higher than males with thorax deformity without joint hypermobility.     

惊恐障碍的治疗与咨询：基于病例学习的心理健康案例研究——惊恐障碍

惊恐障碍是一种焦虑障碍，以反复出现不可预期的惊恐发作为特点，常伴有强烈的害怕、心悸、出汗、震颤、窒息感和濒死感等，患者持续担心症状发作或回避相关场所，易发展为广泛性焦虑症。全球范围内惊恐障碍发病率约为2.1%，近年来其发病率逐年增高，疾病负担越来越重。目前我国惊恐障碍患者的首诊几乎全部在综合医院，误诊率较高，尚缺乏快速有效的治疗方法。本文从生物-心理-社会医学模式出发，通过对1例35岁女性惊恐障碍患者诊疗过程进行描述和分析，体现了辨证统合心理治疗过程中的重要环节及其应用情况，以期为提高全科医生对整合取向心理治疗的了解和应用能力提供借鉴。     

Do children separated from fathers have higher anxiety levels? A comparative analysis

BackgroundThere is limited literature from India on effect of fathers' deployment on the mental health of children. This cross-sectional analytical study investigates the difference in anxiety levels of children whose fathers are deployed in a field location and compares it with children currently located with their fathers.MethodData were collected in an army school from 200 children aged 10–17 years with fathers deployed in field locations (n = 99) and fathers currently residing with the children (n = 105) via interviewer administered and self-completed Screen for Child Anxiety-Related Disorders (SCARED) questionnaire.ResultsAnxiety scores were on an average, minimally raised above the cut-off level for children who had fathers deployed. In addition, panic disorder scores were also above the cut-off levels for these children. While scores were normal in all other domain, they were higher than that for children residing with their fathers, although the difference was not significant. Girls with fathers deployed had scores higher than cut-off scores for domains such as panic, separation anxiety and school avoidance, while boys had scores higher than cut-off scores only for panic disorders. However, the girls had significantly higher scores than boys in all domains. Girls in both groups (with and without father deployed) had higher scores than cut-off scores for panic disorders.ConclusionAnxiety levels in children were not found to be unduly affected by the deployment of fathers. But girls were found to have clinically relevant panic disorder, school avoidance and separation anxiety scores as compared with boys in the similar situation of parental separation.     

心血管疾病患者的焦虑与惊恐发作

目的　探讨心血管疾病的焦虑与惊恐障碍。方法　分析心血管疾病中焦虑与惊恐障碍的发生率,诊断标准,临床表现和治疗方法。结果　心血管疾病患者焦虑与惊恐发作的发生率高,临床表现常见为胸痛,高血压,心动过速,心律不齐以及类似左心衰竭。结论　临床医师应提高心血管疾病中焦虑与惊恐障碍的识别能力。     

Prescribing patterns in agoraphobia with panic attacks

Although medication is used commonly in the treatment of agoraphobia with panic attacks, the actual drug-prescribing patterns of the medical profession have not been well studied in this condition. The present study compares the prescribing patterns of general practitioners and psychiatrists in their treatment of agoraphobia with panic attacks. The medical records of 111 agoraphobic patients with panic attacks were analysed and divided into those who were referred by general practitioners and those who were referred by psychiatrists. Over all, in the treatment of agoraphobia with panic attacks, general practitioners prescribed drugs less often than did psychiatrists. They used fewer combinations of drugs and tended to prescribe tricyclic antidepressant agents in doses which generally are considered to be below the therapeutic range. This finding would suggest that general practitioners are less effective than are psychiatrists in prescribing for this condition as judged by current practice, although they are less likely to prescribe combinations of drugs--a practice which might well be to their credit.     

心血管疾病患者的焦虑与惊恐发作

目的 探讨心血管疾病的焦虑与惊恐障碍。方法 分析心血管疾病中焦虑与惊恐障碍的发生率,诊断标准,临床表现和治疗方法。结果 心血管疾病患者焦虑与惊恐发作的发生率高,临床表现常见为胸痛,高血压,心动过速,心律不齐以及类似左心衰竭。结论 临床医师应提高心血管疾病中焦虑与惊恐障碍的识别能力。