Endocrine disorders and metabolic disorders

Psychiatric symptoms associated with endocrine disorders and metabolic disorders have been well recognized. Common endocrine/metabolic disorders that frequently cause psychiatric symptoms, thyroid disease, adrenal disorders, parathyroid disease, diabetes, electrolyte disturbance are reviewed, especially focusing on usage of psychotropic medicine. Psychotropic medication targeting each psychiatric symptom would be recommended for patients with moderate to severe psychiatric symptoms. However, it should be considered that psychotropic medicine might affect background endocrine/metabolic disorders themselves. Risk/benefit of the medication should be deliberated for individual cases.     

心理学在灾难急救医学中的作用

灾难作为创伤件的事件,往往与日常的认知结构相冲突,超过了个体的心理应对水平.因此,灾难中的个体常常会并发一系列的心理学反应,并可能继发各种精神疾患,尤其是创伤相关精神障碍,如急性应激障碍和创伤后应激障碍.本文作者从灾难急救医学的视角,对2008年发生在我国的"5·12"汶川地震的两个心理学研究进行了总结.结果 显示,在"5·12"汶川地震发生后超过一半的个体存在焦虑-警觉性增高症状,12.59%的灾区群众在地震发生后一月内发生急性应激障碍.地震后5个月,采用复合性国际诊断问卷(Comprehensive International diagnostic Interview,CIDI)对灾区群众的的调查结果显示,有21.29%的灾区成人和10.21%的青少年学生存在创伤后应激障碍."5.12"汶川地震对灾区群众的心理已造成严重的心理影响,作为灾难急救医学的相关人员应充分认识到灾难急救中的相关心理学问题.同时结果提示,长期的心理卫生服务应该成为四川地震重建规划中重要的内容之一.     

Neuropsychology in occupational rehabilitation: a new field of intervention?

The main goal of rehabilitation is social and vocational reintegration of handicapped people. Neuropsychological disorders prove to be particularly critical factors in this context. In many cases vocational retraining requiring good cognitive abilities and capacity is essential. Neuropsychological impairments can substantially diminish the chance of successful vocational rehabilitation. To assess the need for neuropsychological intervention within the scope of vocational rehabilitation programmes, 69 persons undergoing rehabilitation in the Berufsf?rderungswerk Sachsen-Anhalt, a non-profit organization devoted to vocational reintegration, were screened to identify individuals with cognitive deficits. Furthermore a brief multidimensional self-report inventory, the Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90-R) was administered. In addition, the files of all participants were reviewed with regard to mental or neurological disorders. The study revealed cognitive deficits in a quarter to a third of the participants depending on the cognitive domain. Comparison of neuropsychological test performance of trainees with and without established diagnosis of pertinent diseases confirmed cognitive deficits in those with prior diagnosis of neurological disorder, as expected. Only for Divided Attention a significant correlation was found between neuropsychological deficits and psychiatric disorders as documented in the files. However, a considerable number of persons without corresponding medical-psychological pre-diagnosis were found to also perform poorly in particular tests. Furthermore it could be shown that subjectively experienced stress in trainees had a negative impact on reaction times in specific test procedures. These findings strongly suggest a need to supplement vocational rehabilitation by neuropsychological training programmes. When cognitive functional impairments are suspected, specific diagnostic assessments should be administered in order to select and implement appropriate interventions.     

Neuropsychological performance, impulsivity, and comorbid psychiatric illness in patients with pathological gambling undergoing treatment at the CORE Inpatient Treatment Center

INTRODUCTION: Pathologic gambling is a disorder with features that implicate abnormal functioning in brain regions involved in addiction, mood, anxiety, and impulse control disorders. Our goal was to examine brain function with neurocognitive tasks that target these brain regions in patients with pathologic gambling. METHODS: Patients were evaluated for comorbid psychiatric disorders, impulsivity, and performance on reversal-learning and reward-based decision-making cognitive tasks. RESULTS: Patients had higher impulsivity scores and significant deficits on both cognitive tasks compared with controls. All subjects also had comorbid psychiatric disorders, including mood, anxiety, psychotic, and substance abuse. CONCLUSION: The cognitive deficits and impulsivity are consistent with abnormal activity in orbitofrontal-limbic networks. The high level of comorbidity is consistent with the overall severity in these inpatients undergoing treatment, and adds weight to the concept of a fundamental abnormality in this network.     

Cognitive outcome in traumatic brain injury survivors

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review discusses recent studies investigating the cognitive and psychiatric outcome of posttraumatic brain injury. In addition, it aims to highlight key areas for future research. RECENT FINDINGS: Detailed cognitive assessments have revealed particular deficits in processing speed in the visual domain and the detrimental impact of interference on attentional performance. A pilot functional imaging study revealed neural changes in survivors performing a response inhibition task, even when matched to controls on behavioural indices. Recent psychiatric studies highlight the incidence of these disorders in the survivors and attempt to characterize distinct psychiatric profiles. Adult and child survivors appear to show differential difficulties. Successful rehabilitation strategies addressing these psychiatric and cognitive deficits include holistic intensive neuropsychological interventions and the introduction of electronic devices. Systematic randomized trials are needed to provide an adequate evidence base for clinical practice. The potential for cognitive enhancement using psychopharmacological agents has yet to be exploited. These treatments may lead to improved quality of life for traumatic brain injury survivors and their families. SUMMARY: Survivors of head injury show a diverse pattern of cognitive and psychiatric profiles. Recent research highlights the nature of some of these deficits and possible ways to enhance functioning. However, the area is well poised for rapid progress in the understanding of cognitive and emotional dysfunction following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and its rehabilitation through neuropsychological and psychopharmacological means.     

Problems of self-regulation: a new way to view deficits in children born prematurely

While survival rates for the smallest infants are increasing, so is the rate of disability. Low birth rate children are at increased risk for psychiatric and behavioral symptoms especially those related to attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders. Researchers have demonstrated that even "normal" low birth weight (LBW) children receive special educational services at an alarming rate. Little is understood about the processes responsible for these academic delays. Preventative interventions cannot be implemented without understanding the underlying developmental processes. The study of self-regulation (SR) of cognition and the factors that may influence the development of regulatory capacity are suggested as a way to frame future work. SR of cognition refers to one's ability to select and use information appropriately. Problems in the development of the self-regulation of attention may explain deficits in the acquisition of cognitive skills as well as other deficits. The argument is made that specific variables may directly, indirectly or in both ways influence mechanisms and processes underlying the development of attention in LBW children. It is proposed that studying the SR of cognition provides a potentially useful and powerful focus for intervention research.     

Organic Disease Presenting as a Psychiatric Syndrome

Organic illnesses may be misdiagnosed as psychiatric disorders if emotional symptoms precede medical signs or if the medical symptoms mimic a common psychiatric syndrome. Diseases presenting such diagnostic pitfalls include the endocrine syndromes, certain metabolic abnormalities, some neoplastic conditions, multiple sclerosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Thorough initial and periodic medical evaluation, including examination of the patient's mental status, is recommended.     

Cognitive Deficits in Patients With Depression

Cognitive impairment in patients with depression is often overlooked because cognitive deficits and symptoms of depression often overlap. Understanding the neurobiological aspects of cognitive deficits is important, because cognition evolves as a therapeutic target in treating depression. Cognitive symptoms can precede or linger after symptoms of depression, such as sleep, appetite, and affective symptoms, improve. Emerging literature on medications targeting cognition in patients with depression should be considered when clinical decisions are made. Residual cognitive symptoms have been identified as a predictor of poor outcomes when treating depression. Referral to psychiatry should be considered in patients with residual symptoms where diagnosis is unclear.     

The impact of cognitive challenges in major depression: the role of the primary care physician

Nearly 1 in 5 Americans will struggle with major depression in their lives; some will have recurring bouts. Recent psychiatric research has given new attention to the prevalence of cognitive deficits in major depression and the impact such deficits have on remission and overall life functioning. When depression is partially treated i.e., leaving residual symptoms, patients have higher rates of relapse and lower functional outcomes. Impaired cognitive functioning is a frequent residual symptom, persisting in about 45% of patients even when emotional symptoms have improved, and results in a disproportionate share of the functional impairment, particularly in the workplace. Patients with depression have disrupted circuitry in brain regions responsible for cognition and it is therefore important to screen depressed patients for cognitive as well as emotional symptoms. Cognitive dysfunction should be evaluated in every mood disordered patient with validated self-report scales such as the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 or the Beck Depression Inventory and objective measures of cognitive function are also very very useful. Two easily administered tests are the Trails B Test and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test. Each take less than two minutes and measure working memory, executive function, and processing speed and can track cognitive improvement in depressed patients. Treatment of cognitive dysfunction in major depression is complicated by the ‘serotonin conundrum’: SSRI’s frequently do not treat to full remission, and can cause cognitive blunting—actually adding to cognitive problems. Based on recent data including results from a recently completed meta-analysis by McIntyre and colleagues, an evidence-based algorithm for treating cognitive symptoms in depression is presented. A hierarchy of antidepressants and augmentation strategies based on the best available evidence is discussed. In conclusion, cognitive symptoms in major depressive disorder have been recognized as a target of therapeutic improvement by the FDA and have become a focus of clinical importance.     

Neuroendocrinology of mood disorders

The neuroendocrine system, which plays an important role in regulation of mood, is dysfunctional in patients suffering from mood disorders. In order to improve the quality of life for patients, additional research is needed to define clinical implications of neuroendocrine dysfunction in mood disorders. It would be important to define which specific hormonal responses that are blunted in affective disorders contribute to mood symptoms and which medications that normalize neuroendocrine function are conditioning the impact of mood symptoms. Consideration and evaluation of endocrine status result important in psychiatric patients, both to ensure proper diagnosis and adequate treatment.     

Diagnosis and therapy of depression in advanced age

Depressive symptoms and dementia are the most frequent psychiatric disorders in late life. Somatic diseases, social isolation, and functional disability, interfering with the activity of daily life and social participation are among the relevant risk factors. The elderly are particularly prone to subsyndromal depression because of their increased tendency to alexithymia and somatisation, which masks the depression. There is a strong association between comorbid physical illnesses and depressive symptoms for a number of common medical disorders. Antidepressive therapy is proven to be as effective as in younger age groups. Medical treatment should consider the special pharmacological features of old age and should be combined with psychotherapy. When the notion that depression in older people is "justified" is no longer common sense, then successful treatment will be more likely.     

Delirium in the elderly

Delirium, an acute confusional state, is an organic brain syndrome that manifests deficits in attention, irrelevant or rambling speech, and other cognitive deficits. Its symptoms often fluctuate over the course of the day, and patients may be hyperactive--for example, restless and screaming--or hypoactive--for example, quiet, inactive, and stuporous. Occurring in approximately 20% of hospitalized elderly patients, delirium is the most common psychiatric syndrome in acutely ill general medical and surgical patients. Fifteen to 30% of delirious patients expire, and others are prone to a variety of complications: falls, pressure ulcers, oversedation, dehydration, and others. Almost any acute illness can cause delirium in the elderly, but the most common offenders are acute infections and drugs. Many patients have a pre-existing dementia. The first step in arriving at a correct diagnosis is to distinguish delirium from other psychiatric syndromes that can cause confusion, such as dementia, depression, schizophrenia, and mania. Once delirium is established, a comprehensive general examination and a mental status examination is required. Routine laboratory and radiologic tests are directed at the common metabolic and infectious disorders that precipitate delirium. Treatment is directed at the underlying acute illness. In all patients, it is important (1) to treat the underlying acute illness, (2) to provide appropriate fluid and electrolytes, (3) to discontinue any unnecessary drugs, and (4) to allay the patient's fear and agitation through the use of simple, repetitive instructions, orientation cues, and by limiting the use of physical restraints. If psychotropic medications are needed to treat psychotic symptoms, to prevent patients from harming themselves or others, or to facilitate necessary diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, then haloperidol is the drug of choice in most instances. Drugs with anticholinergic properties should be avoided.     

A practical guide to recognition and diagnosis of ADHD in adults in the primary care setting

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is commonly perceived as a childhood disorder, but ADHD symptoms can persist into adulthood. The symptoms, deficits, and consequences associated with adult ADHD can have a profound impact on the daily lives of patients and their families. Self-awareness of ADHD symptoms can sometimes be difficult for adults who have lived with these symptoms since childhood. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is highly comorbid with other psychiatric disorders, and physicians should maintain a high index of suspicion and integrate screening for ADHD when they feel that psychiatric evaluation is indicated in their adult patients. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder can be screened for in as little as 3 to 5 minutes with a variety of self-report or physician-implemented scales. An accurate diagnosis of ADHD in adults requires a comprehensive clinical interview that reviews representative symptoms starting in childhood that continue to cause impairment into adulthood. It is often helpful to interview or obtain information from family, friends, coworkers, or school records. With increasing understanding of ADHD in adults, the recent development of adult-specific diagnostic scales promises further improvement in the standard of care for this disorder. Appropriate treatment of ADHD in adults can provide dramatic symptomatic improvement with some of the largest treatment effects of any medical condition.     

Sleep in patients with neurologic and psychiatric disorders

Given the widely recognized association between many neurologic and psychiatric disorders and significant sleep disturbances, the International Classification of Sleep Disorders Diagnostic and Coding Manual recognizes "Sleep Disorders Associated with Mental, Neurologic, or Other Medical Disorders" as one of four major classification categories. Such sleep disturbances may exacerbate symptoms of the underlying neurologic or psychiatric disorder or produce further adverse medical, behavioral, or psychosocial consequences. Therefore, adequate assessment and recognition of sleep disturbances in these populations is essential. This article includes a summary of neurologic systems influencing sleep that may be affected by neurologic and psychiatric disorders, followed by a brief review of sleep disturbances associated with many common neurologic and psychiatric disorders.     

Pharmacological management of psychiatric disorders among cancer patients

Approximately half of patients actually die from cancer even today, and many cancer patients require care for psychological distress. From the viewpoint of psychiatric diagnosis, the most common psychiatric conditions experienced by cancer patients are adjustment disorders, major depression, and delirium. Appropriate pharmacological treatment as well as psychotherapy and/or supportive intervention should be provided for cancer patients with these psychiatric disorders. Psychotropic medication including benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and major antipsychotics are usually provided depending on each patient's symptoms. This review focuses on the psychiatric disorders experienced by cancer patients and provides an overview regarding appropriate pharmacological interventions for psychiatric disorders among cancer patients.     

Managing late complications of Parkinson's disease

Treatment of parkinsonism becomes more difficult as the disease progresses, and results from increasing neuronal degeneration, side effects from antiparkinsonian medications, or most often, a combination of each. Neurodegenerative parkinson symptoms may result from substantia nigra destruction, or from other areas in the nervous system. These include the cortex (cognitive and psychiatric disorders), brainstem (bulbar abnormalities), intermediolateral cell column (autonomic disturbances), among others. Medication side effects produce motor fluctuations, dyskinesias, delirium, hallucinations, psychosis, orthostatic hypotension, sleep disorders, and a host of other well-recognized complications. This article is divided into sections concerning motor fluctuations, gait difficulty bulbar disturbances, autonomic disturbances, sleep disorders, cognitive disorders, and psychiatric disorders, and is an attempt to provide the reader with strategies for treating common complications in the advanced Parkinson's disease patient.     

Psychotherapy as an epigenetic 'drug': psychiatric therapeutics target symptoms linked to malfunctioning brain circuits with psychotherapy as well as with drugs

What is known and Objective: Psychotherapy has traditionally competed with psychopharmacology. As drugs have become the more dominant treatment in psychiatry and primary care, this approach is increasingly criticized as limited in scope, lacking in robust outcomes and too heavily influenced by the pharmaceutical industry. Our objective is to show that recent advances in neurobiology are clarifying that learning and environmental experiences, such as psychotherapy, change brain circuits as do drugs. The leading notion of how therapeutic effects occur in psychiatric disorders is that they happen when symptoms are reduced by improving the efficiency of information processing in hypothetically malfunctioning brain circuits. Comment: With this formulation of psychiatric symptoms and their relief, it is not surprising that both psychotherapy and psychopharmacology can be clinically effective for treating psychiatric disorders, or indeed that combining them can be therapeutically synergistic. Psychotherapy, including a new spinoff of cognitive behavioural therapy called trial‐based therapy, like many other forms of learning, can hypothetically induce epigenetic changes in brain circuits that can enhance the efficiency of information processing in malfunctioning neurons to improve symptoms in psychiatric disorders, just like drugs. What is new and Conclusion: Psychotherapies can be conceptualized as epigenetic ‘drugs’, or at least as therapeutic agents that act epigenetically in a manner similar or complementary to drugs. These findings are leading to a paradigm shift in psychiatry such that psychotherapy is experiencing a come‐back as various standardized, brief, goal‐directed psychotherapies are being integrated with drug treatment of psychiatric disorders by psychopharmacologists who have traditionally relied on a drugs‐only approach.     

Psychiatric disorders in the elderly. Psychopharmacologic management

Psychiatric management of elderly patients is a challenging task because of the many age-related physiologic changes and medical problems in this population. Thorough patient evaluation is essential to rule out somatic disorders and determine underlying causes. Somatic complaints must be taken seriously, even if a patient is receiving treatment for a psychiatric disorder. Psychotropic therapy is used mainly for controlling depression, agitation, and psychotic symptoms. If psychiatric symptoms persist or become worse, psychotropics should be discontinued to prevent possible drug toxicity (eg, anticholinergic delirium) and psychiatric consultation should be requested.     

Emergency management of agitation in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a common psychiatric condition, affecting approximately 1% of the population. Acute emergent presentations often include hallucinations, delusions, thought, and speech disorders. Agitation is common among emergency patients with schizophrenia. Decisional capacity should be assessed in all patients. Reversible causes of agitation should be ruled out, including infection, metabolic disorders, endocrine disorders, trauma, pain, noncompliance, toxicological disorders, and structural brain abnormalities. Agitation may be managed acutely using a combination of pharmacological agents and nonpharmacological interventions. Effective pharmacological agents include several classes of antipsychotic agents and benzodiazepines. Potential life-threatening complications of pharmacological therapy should be anticipated, which may include neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS), prolonged QT syndrome, and respiratory depression. Nonpharmacological interventions may include a quiet environment, physical restraints, and behavioral interventions. Disposition decisions should be made based on the etiology of agitation, effective management, decisional capacity, and presence of suicidal or homicidal intentions. Many patients who have required nonpharmacological or pharmacological management of agitation require inpatient psychiatric treatment, either voluntarily or involuntarily. Psychiatric consultation should be sought for patients with schizophrenia and uncertain disposition determinations, or those requiring other complex management decisions.