预防骨科大手术深静脉血栓形成指南（草案）

1 概述 1.1 骨科大手术 本指南(草案)中"骨科大手术"特指人工髋关节置换术、人工膝关节置换术和髋部周围骨折手术.     

中国骨科大手术静脉血栓栓塞症预防指南

骨科大手术后静脉血栓栓塞症(venous thromboem-bolism,VTE)发生率较高,是患者围手术期死亡的主要原因之一,也是医院内非预期死亡的重要原因.对骨科大手术患者施以有效的预防方法,不仅可以降低发生静脉血栓栓塞症的风险,减轻患者痛苦,大量的医药经济学研究证实还可降低医疗费用[1].为提高骨科相关静脉血栓栓塞症的预防水平、规范其预防方法,特制订"中国骨科大手术静脉血栓栓塞症预防指南".本指南中的"骨科大手术"特指人工全髋关节置换术(total hip replacement,THR)、人工全膝关节置换术(totalknee replacement,TKR)和髋部周围骨折手术(hip fractures surgery,HFS)[2].本指南仅为学术性指导意见,具体实施时必须依据患者的医疗情况而定.     

骨科大手术后新型抗凝药临床应用进展

骨科大手术(人工全髋关节置换术、人工膝关节置换术和髋部周围骨折手术)患者血栓发生的高危性以及如何预防已经越来越受到人们的重视[1].     

预防骨科大手术深静脉血栓形成指南(草案)

一、概述（一） 骨科大手术：本指南（草案）中“骨科大手术”特指人工髋关节置换术、人工膝关节置换术和髋部周围骨折手术。[第一段]     

骨科手术后深静脉血栓形成的研究进展

骨科手术、尤其是骨科大手术后深静脉血栓形成(deep vein thrombosis,DVT)的发生率较高,患者继发出血、再入院及死亡率均增高[1].同时,骨科手术后DVT增加了患者住院期间及出院后的经济负担[2],浪费了大量医疗资源.骨科大手术主要是指人工全髋关节置换术(total hip arthroplasty,THA)、人工全膝关节置换术(total knee arthroplasty,TKA)及髋部周围骨折手术.骨科手术后DVT可发生于全身各部位静脉,以下肢深静脉为多.下肢近端(腘静脉或其近侧部位)DVT是肺栓塞血栓栓子的主要来源,预防DVT可降低发生肺栓塞的风险.本文就骨科手术后DVT的研究进展做一综述.     

骨科大手术患者深静脉血栓的预防护理

骨科大手术后静脉血栓栓塞症(venous thromboembolism, VTE)发生率较高,是患者围手术期死亡的主要原因之一,也是医院内非预期死亡的重要原因[1].本文中的"骨科大手术"特指人工髋关节置换术、人工膝关节置换术和髋部周围骨折手术.静脉血栓栓塞症指血液在静脉内不正常地凝结,使血管完全或不完全阻塞,属静脉回流障碍性疾病[2].     

中国骨科大手术静脉血栓栓塞症预防指南

骨科大手术后静脉血栓栓塞症（venous thromboembolism,VTE）的发生率较高,是患者围手术期死亡的主要原因之一,也是医院内非预期死亡的重要原因。对骨科大手术患者施以有效的预防方法,不仅可以降低发生静脉血栓栓塞症的风险,减轻患者痛苦,大量的医药经济学研究证实还可降低医疗费用。为提高与骨科相关的静脉血栓栓塞症的预防水平、规范预防方法,特制订“中国骨科大手术静脉血栓栓塞症预防指南”。本指南中的“骨科大手术”特指人工全髋关节置换术（total hip replacement,THR）、人工全膝关节置换术（total knee replacement,TKR）和髋部周围骨折手术（hip fractures surgery,HFS）。本指南仅为学术性指导意见,具体实施时必须依据患者的医疗情况而定。     

预防骨科大手术深静脉血栓形成指南(草案)(续)

(上期连载文章刊登于本刊2009年第17卷第2期第118页) 4 骨科大手术DVT具体预防方案 4.1 人工全髋关节置换术(THR)和人工全膝关节置换术(TKR) 基本预防措施和物理预防措施参照第三部分相关内容,药物预防的具体使用方法.     

骨科大手术应用抗凝药物的风险及并发症

骨科大手术（ major orthopedic surgery）特指人工全髋关节置换术（ total hip arthroplasty, THA ）、人工全膝关节置换术（ total knee arthroplasty, TKA ）和髋部周围骨折手术（ hip fractures surgery, HFS ）。静脉血栓栓塞症 （ venous thromboembolism, VTE）是骨科大手术后常见且后果严重的并发症，同时也是围手术期患者死亡的重要原因。随着对VTE研究的深入以及相关国内外指南的发布，骨科大手术后需通过有效措施降低VTE的发生率已成为目前骨科界的共识。其中重要的一项措施就是围手术期抗凝药物的使用，越来越多的文献聚焦于使用抗凝剂的益处，而忽略了使用抗凝剂所带来的风险，本文总结了近年来国内外骨科大手术抗凝药物的使用情况及其并发症的报道，现对其研究进展予以综述。     

3664例全髋关节置换术相关危险因素分析

[目的]通过对华西医院骨科1998～2007年行全髋关节置换术患者的基本资料进行分析,得出全髋关节置换术患者特点的变化。[方法]整理华西医院骨科于1998～2007年间行全髋关节置换术患者的资料,统计每年行全髋关节置换术患者的病例数、男女比例、年龄构成、疾病类别等资料,分析10年来行人工全髋关节置换术患者特点变化。[结果]病例数和男女比例呈逐年上升趋势,年龄构成呈逐年减小趋势,导致行全髋关节置换术的疾病类别中缺血性股骨头坏死(激素和酒精性)1 211例,原发性髋关节骨关节炎984例,股骨颈骨折后股骨头坏死947例,创伤性髋关节骨关节炎180例,髋关节感染后骨关节炎(包括髋关节结核和化脓性髋关节炎)100例,类风湿性关节炎及强直性骨关节炎累及髋关节相比其他三种就很少。[结论]国人行全髋关节置换术患者总例数逐年增加,男女比例呈现上升趋势;疾病谱中以原发性髋关节骨关节炎、原发性股骨头缺血性坏死、股骨颈骨折后股骨头缺血性坏死居多,并且还在不断增多,因此预防该三类病因对减少人工全髋关节置换手术患者的数量有重要的意义。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.