Long-term results after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis--the importance of intensive follow-up.

The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term results of percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis (PTRA) in patients with renovascular hypertension with or without impending renal insufficiency who were followed up intensively with aggressive reintervention. Diagnostic work-up was based on angiography, pressure gradient and renal venous renin measurement. Patients were scheduled for regular follow-up after the PTRA and a deterioration in blood pressure or renal function was an indication for re-evaluation, and reintervention if necessary. Sixty-five patients had 71 renal artery stenoses where PTRA was attempted. It was technically successful in 59 stenoses and two occlusions and failed in ten (14%). At the end of follow-up (median 56 months [2-99]), the primary patency rate was 55%, 27 had restenosed and four were occluded, all but two within 12 months. Seventeen were treated by a further PTRA and eight by surgical reconstruction. At the end of follow-up the secondary patency after all interventions was 90%. One patient died 1 month after PTRA, and at the end of follow-up 21 patients (32%) had died, most of them (80%) from cardiovascular disease. Multivariate analyses showed a significantly reduced survival rate in patients with multiocular atherosclerosis, renal insufficiency, contralateral renal artery stenosis and ischaemic heart disease. At the end of follow-up 90% of the patients were cured or improved with regard to blood pressure. In patients with impending renal insufficiency renal function was improved in 50% and unchanged in 39%. With this strategy 55% of the patients needed only one treatment with PTRA, 25% needed a re-PTRA and 20% had to be operated on. PTRA can be recommended as initial treatment of atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis provided intensive follow-up and aggressive reintervention are performed when indicated.     

Angioplasty of the renal artery: antihypertensive and renal effects

Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of the renal artery (PTRA) has been increasingly used over the past 20 years for treating renovascular hypertension (RVH). From the experience gathered so far it is justified to state that this technique is the first choice for patients with fibromuscular renal artery stenosis (RAS) because their cure rate is 50% and 42% improve. In contrast in patients with atherosclerotic RAS the cure rate after PTRA is 8-10% although 40-50% still improve. Since PTRA is associated with a 23% rate of major/minor complications and 30% restenosis (23% requiring stent implantation), it is obvious that in patients with atherosclerotic RAS the decision to attempt this procedure must be taken after careful selection of those who may actually benefit from the dilation. PTRA can be used more extensively for salvaging the function of the ischemic kidney than for treating hypertension because of the progressive nature of the atherosclerotic RAS and the lack of effective agents against such progression. After PTRA 35% of patients have some improvement in renal function and another 35% are stabilized. Yet most studies addressing the renal effects of PTRA suffer the limitation of having used serum creatinine levels as an indicator of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). More recent studies which used radioisotopic techniques to evaluate the changes of GFR induced by PTRA in the stenotic kidney indicate that after a successful procedure the increase is, on average, 8-10 ml/min. Interestingly it appears that this improvement is slower in kidneys of patients with atherosclerotic RAS than in those with fibromuscular RAS.     

Fibromuscular dysplasia of the renal artery: Management and outcome

SUMMARY: Renovascular hypertension may be caused by atherosclerotic disease or less commonly by fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) of the renal arteries. Fibromuscular dysplasia is the commonest cause of renal artery stenosis in the younger age group and affects women predominantly. A review of our clinical database identified all patients with renovascular hypertension. All relevant clinical, biochemical and radiological findings on those with FMD were noted. the outcome of percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) or reconstructive surgery was evaluated. Eight out of 62 (13%) patients with hypertension secondary to renovascular disease had FMD (all female; bilateral in four; mean age at diagnosis 37.6 years; age range 12–70 years). the mean duration of hypertension before the diagnosis of FMD was 3.3 years (range 3 months-10 years). A renal artery bruit was detected in five, hypertensive retinopathy in three and one had mild renal insufficiency. Twelve PTRAs were attempted on 10 stenotic lesions in six women. This cured the hypertension in three, while the other three have required less antihypertensive therapy. Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty was complicated by a trivial renal artery dissection in one, and a small upper pole infarction in another. One patient required a repeat PTRA. the other two women presented before the availability of PTRA and had successful reconstructive surgery. Fibromuscular dysplasia was the cause of hypertension in eight out of 62 (13%) patients with renovascular hypertension. Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty has shown encouraging results with a low complication rate. If technically feasible, PTRA should be attempted on all patients with FMD of the renal artery.     

Cure and improvement of renovascular hypertension after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of renal artery stenosis

In the present study we report our long-term experience in 82 patients with renovascular hypertension (48 with atherosclerotic stenosis, 34 with fibromuscular dysplasia) who were followed up for a mean observation period of 23.6 months after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) of renal artery stenosis. Our results show a highly significant decrease in mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Cure rates were slightly higher in patients with fibromuscular dysplasia (41% cured, 47% improved) than in those with atherosclerosis (23% cured, 54% improved). Kidney function significantly improved in patients with cure, remained stable in those with improvement and worsened in cases classified as unimproved. These results document the good long-term effect of PTA on blood pressure and kidney function in patients with renal artery stenosis.     

Fibromuscular dysplasia of the renal artery: Management and outcome

Renovascular hypertension may be caused by atherosclerotic disease or less commonly by fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) of the renal arteries. Fibromuscular dysplasia is the commonest cause of renal artery stenosis in the younger age group and affects women predominantly. A review of our clinical database identified all patients with renovascular hypertension. All relevant clinical, biochemical and radiological findings on those with FMD were noted. The outcome of percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) or reconstructive surgery was evaluated. Eight out of 62 (13%) patients with hypertension secondary to renovascular disease had FMD (all female; bilateral in four; mean age at diagnosis 37.6 years; age range 12–70 years). The mean duration of hypertension before the diagnosis of FMD was 3.3 years (range 3 months–10 years). A renal artery bruit was detected in five, hypertensive retinopathy in three and one had mild renal insufficiency. Twelve PTRAs were attempted on 10 stenotic lesions in six women. This cured the hypertension in three, while the other three have required less antihypertensive therapy. Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty was complicated by a trivial renal artery dissection in one, and a small upper pole infarction in another. One patient required a repeat PTRA. The other two women presented before the availability of PTRA and had successful reconstructive surgery. Fibromuscular dysplasia was the cause of hypertension in eight out of 62 (13%) patients with renovascular hypertension. Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty has shown encouraging results with a low complication rate. If technically feasible, PTRA should be attempted on all patients with FMD of the renal artery.     

Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty for renovascular hypertension in children

Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) has been developed over the past 8 years as an alternative to reconstructive surgery for renovascular hypertension. We report three cases and review the use of PTA in children with renal artery stenosis. At least 37 cases of PTA have been reported in patients whose ages ranged from 1.3 to 17 years (mean 10 years). Of these, 10 had fibromuscular dysplasia; 13 unspecified unilateral renal artery stenosis; 4 bilateral stenosis; 4 neurofibromatosis; 4 renal transplant; 1 atherosclerosis; and 1 postsurgical stenosis. Nine of 10 patients with fibromuscular dysplasia were cured and 3 of 4 with renal transplant arterial stenosis were cured or improved. There were 11 failures of PTA, including all 4 patients with neurofibromatosis and 1 with transplant arterial stenosis. We conclude that PTA is the treatment of choice for children with hypertension due to fibromuscular dysplasia and should be attempted for stenosis of the transplanted renal artery. Other lesions resulting in renal artery stenosis may not be as amenable to dilation and should be considered on an individual basis.R. L. Chevalier is an Established Investigator of the American Heart Association     

Surgical renal artery reconstruction after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty

Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) is a controversial treatment for renal artery stenosis. This article discusses whether or not a prior attempt at PTRA compromises a subsequent elective or emergent surgical revascularization. Thirteen patients had surgical renal artery reconstruction after one or more PTRAs. Eight of the patients were treated because of atherosclerotic renal artery disease whereas five had a form of fibromuscular dysplasia. Five patients had renal artery injury directly related to the angioplasty. Four of these kidneys were saved. Eight patients were treated from 6 to 920 days after PTRA because of recurrent stenosis or occlusion of the renal artery. Only one of these kidneys was lost, an attempt at revascularization of a small kidney that failed to resume function. A prior attempt at PTRA did not compromise the ability of subsequent surgical revascularization to ameliorate hypertension. We conclude that surgical renal revascularization is not made less likely to succeed by a previous attempt at PTRA; even if the renal artery is thrombosed or perforated during the procedure, a reasonable chance of renal salvage is obtained by immediate surgical revascularization.     

Percutaneous transluminal renal artery dilatation for fibromuscular dysplasia with special reference to the acute effects on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and blood pressure

Twelve hypertensive patients (mean age 46.6 years, range 37-55 years) with fibromuscular dysplasia of the renal artery were treated with percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) and the effects on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and blood pressure were studied in the acute phase. The technical result of PTRA measured by angiography and reduction of PRA and aldosterone excretion was satisfactory in 11 patients. In spite of this only three patients were cured of their hypertension and two patients were improved at six months follow-up. During PTRA an immediate rise in plasma renin activity was noted in patients without beta-receptor blockade but not in patients treated with beta-receptor blocking agents suggesting a beta-receptor mediated release. This peak in renin release was not accompanied by any rise in systemic blood pressure. The blood pressure response in the acute phase did not show any regular pattern. We conclude that PTRA can serve as a model for studying effects of 'clamping' and 'declamping' of the renal artery in man.     

Results of renal artery balloon angioplasty limit its indications

Percutaneous transluminal balloon angioplasty (PTA) of 83 renal artery lesions in 55 patients was done because of renal failure in eight patients, hypertension in 35, renal failure and hypertension in 11, and polycythemia in one patient. Early results in 38 patients with arteriosclerosis showed five (13%) were worse and 13 (34%) were unchanged. Twenty patients (53%) with arteriosclerosis were initially cured or improved; however, seven of these patients had recurrence in 4 to 48 months. Ultimately, only 13 of 38 patients with arteriosclerosis (34%) were cured or improved (mean follow-up 22 months). Nine patients with fibromuscular dysplasia required 17 dilatations of arteries (three bilateral and five repeat), resulting in eight patients (89%) who were cured or improved. Selection of patients with hypertension by medical failure while receiving three or more hypertension medications or by lateralizing renal vein renin values yielded benefit in 17 of 26 patients (65%). Five of six patients with transplant stenosis of the renal artery and hypertension were cured or improved at mean follow-up of 18 months. Overall technical results of 83 artery dilatations were as follows: good, 58 (69%); fair, 10 (12%); poor or unsatisfactory, 16 (19%); these were judged with a blinded radiologic review. No patient suffered main renal artery thrombosis. There were 16 patients with complications of dilatation (morbidity rate of 29%). Nine patients subsequently had renal artery surgery from the same day to 64 days later with good results in all patients except one.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Early diagnosis and management of renovascular hypertension

Renovascular hypertension is more common in hypertensive children than in hypertensive adults, and renal artery stenosis is second only to coarctation of the thoracic aorta as a cause of surgically correctable hypertension. Three infants presented with uncontrollable hypertension secondary to renal artery thrombosis due to umbilical artery catheterization for respiratory distress in the neonatal period. They all responded to nephrectomy. A fourth infant had stenosis of a polar vessel secondary to umbilical artery catheterization and was cured by partial nephrectomy. Two infants with renal artery stenosis secondary to fibromuscular dysplasia benefited from revascularization and, at last follow-up, were normotensive and off all blood pressure medication. Ultrasonography, isotope scanning, angiography and selective renal vein renin assays should be used to identify patients with surgically correctable lesions. The use of fine suture material and microvascular surgical techniques, including ex vivo revascularization and autotransplantation, can salvage renal parenchyma and relieve hypertension. Infants with less than 10 percent renal function on the involved side should have a nephrectomy. The infant with an umbilical arterial catheterization line needs blood pressure monitoring and aggressive evaluation and treatment of persistent hypertension.     

介入治疗肾血管性高血压

目的总结经皮腔内血管成形术（ＰＴＲＡ）＋内支架植入术治疗肾血管性高血压的疗效。方法１９９５～１９９８年介入治疗肾血管性高血压患者２６例。对肾动脉硬化导致的肾动脉近端病变直接行支架植入术。对肾动脉硬化致肾动脉中远端病变及大动脉炎,纤维肌肉发育不良性肾动脉病变先行ＰＴＲＡ术,效果不好或失败者行支架植入术。选择Ｐａｌｍａｚ支架。结果ＰＴＲＡ＋支架植入术技术成功率１００％,近期临床治愈改善率９２．３％,随访治愈改善率８６．４％。结论ＰＴＲＡ＋支架植入术即时安全有效,治愈改善率满意,可作为肾血管性高血压的首选治疗方法。     

Renal artery intervention in pediatric and adolescent patients: a 20-year experience

Between 1986 and 2005, 22 patients (mean age, 14.7 years; range, 3-21) with renal hypertension underwent renal artery revascularization for 28 lesions, 23 with open repair (OR) and 5 with percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA). Thirty-day morbidity was 17% (4/23). Hypertension was cured in 13 (57%), improved in 8 (38%), and unchanged in 1 (5%). Renal function worsened in 1. At a mean follow-up of 4.9 years, 1-year patency rate was 94% and maintained for 5 years. Hypertension at 1 year was cured in 6 of 14 patients (43%; OR, 4; PTRA, 2) and improved in 8 (57%; OR, 7; PTRA, 1); hypertension at 5 years was cured in 50% and improved in 50%. Renal function remained unchanged in all patients who were followed. The authors conclude that both OR and PTRA benefit pediatric patients. PTRA for selected patients may be promising as a first line treatment or as a bridge to definitive OR in children with small arteries.     

肾动脉狭窄支架植入后狭窄复发的自体肾移植治疗(附6例报告)

目的：探讨肾动脉狭窄(RAS)经皮支架植入术后狭窄复发的治疗措施。方法：对6例肾动脉内支架植入后再狭窄患者行自体肾移植术治疗。结果：随访8～88个月(平均29个月)，6例自体肾移植后，2例血压转为正常，4例得到改善。3例肾功能不全中，1例改善，2例稳定。结论：自体肾移植术对肾动脉内支架植入后狭窄复发是一种安全、有效的治疗方法，能明显降低血压和改善肾功能，可列为首选。     

Interventional radiology in the treatment of renal artery stenosis.

Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) alone or in combination with stent implantation, is increasingly used as an alternative technique to surgical revascularization for treatment of renal artery stenosis (RAS) wich may cause hypertension or jeopardize renal function. Herein we report the results obtained with 305 PTRAs performed in 242 hypertensive patients, 144 of whom had atherosclerotic RAS, 69 fibromuscolar dysplasia, 15 Ras in transplanted kidneys, 6 restenosis in surgically revascularized kidneys, 4 Takayasu arteritis and 4 neurofibromatosis. Stents were implanted in 68 cases, mostly in atherosclerotic stenoses. The technical success was achieved in 261 arteries (85.6%), with 33 failures (10.8%) and 11 (3.6%) procedures not completed for anatomical reasons. PTRA related complications were observed in 23 cases (7.5%), but no fatalities occurred. An overall benefit on blood pressure control was observed in 41% of patients with atherosclerotic RAS and in 68% of those with fibromuscolar dysplasia. It appears that independently from the ethiology PTRA is technically effective in correcting RAS; yet the position of PTRA with respect to that of medical or surgical treatment needs to be better delineated through randomized, controlled studies aimed at comparing the clinical efficacies of these different approaches.     

Should percutaneous transluminal renal artery angioplasty be applied to ostial renal artery atherosclerosis?

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to review the results of percutaneous transluminal renal artery angioplasty (PTRA) in patients with atherosclerosis to assess safety, anatomic and functional outcome, and differences in outcome between ostial and nonostial lesions.Methods: We used retrospective review of 52 consecutive patients who had undergone attempted PTRA for renal artery atherosclerosis during the calendar years 1987 to 1992.Results: Fifty-two patients had 60 renal arteries on whom PTRA was attempted. The mean age was 68 years. Atherosclerosis was generalized in 81% of the patients. The indication for angioplasty was salvage of functioning renal parenchyma in 81% of patients. Eight patients were undergoing dialysis at the time of attempted PTRA. Five arteries (8%) could not be dilated. There were one cardiac death and two arterial complications requiring surgery within 30 days. Thirty-five percent of patients with available angiograms had an anatomic improvement above a threshold of one stenotic group (30% to 40% diameter improvement), with residual stenosis of less than 50%. Half of patients treated for hypertension had improvement in their hypertension. Overall, there was no change in creatinine levels before and after the procedure. Four of eight patients undergoing dialysis at the time of PTRA were able to discontinue dialysis during follow-up. Four patients (11%) required surgical bypass and five patients (14%) required chronic dialysis during follow-up.Conclusions: Modest success at low risk can be expected from PTRA in a group of patients with severe atherosclerosis. No significant difference in results between ostial and nonostial lesions was noted. (J VASC SURG 1995;21:909-15.)     

Long-term Results After Surgical Reconstruction for Renal Artery Fibromuscular Dysplasia

OBJECTIVES: To study the initial and long-term results of surgery for renal artery fibromuscular dysplasia (RFMD). PATIENTS AND METHODS: All patients undergoing renal artery reconstruction (RAR) performed for RFMD between January 1980 and December 1997, were studied. The preprocedural and postprocedural clinical records of 101 patients (80 women, 21 men; mean age at surgery 43 years) were retrospectively reviewed. All surviving patients were invited for clinical reexamination and colour-coded duplex-ultrasound of the renal arteries (RA). RESULTS: Initial technical success was achieved in 83 of 93 patients (89%), in whom postoperative angiography (90) or renal scintigraphy (three) were performed for assessment of RAR. Early occlusion (four) or stenosis (one) demanded reoperation in five patients (5%). The 30-day mortality and morbidity were 2% and 12% for the entire group. Primary patency rate was 74% at 5 years. Fifteen patients had to be reoperated for restenosis after a mean time of 33 months, resulting in a secondary patency rate of 85% after 5 years. In 61 patients with patent RAR at the time of re-examination, arterial hypertension was cured only in 22 (36%) and improvement in 19 (31%). CONCLUSION: Vascular surgery for RFMD yields good long-term results as to kidney perfusion and function. Surveillance of RAR-patency by means of ultrasound examination is mandatory in case of recurrence of arterial hypertension or deterioration. Rates of cure of hypertension are disappointing.     

Reno-vascular hypertension in childhood: a nationwide survey

Renovascular disease accounts for 8–10% of all cases of paediatric hypertension, whereas, in adults, its incidence is approximately 1%. The Turkish Paediatric Hypertension Group aimed to create the first registry database for childhood renovascular hypertension in Turkey. Twenty of the 28 paediatric nephrology centres in Turkey responded to the survey and reported 45 patients (27 girls, 18 boys) with renovascular hypertension between 1990 and 2005. The age at presentation ranged from 20 days to 17 years. The mean blood pressure at the diagnosis was 169/110 mmHg. Chief complaints of symptomatic patients were headache (38%), seizure (18%), epistaxis (4%), growth retardation (4%), cognitive dysfunction (4%), polyuria (2%), palpitation (2%), and hemiplegia (2%). Renovascular hypertension was found incidentally in 11 children. The diagnosis of renovascular hypertension was established with conventional angiography in 39 patients, MR angiography in three, CT angiography in two, and captopril diethylene triamine penta-acetic acid (DTPA) scintigraphy in one patient. Twenty-one children had bilateral renal artery stenosis and 24 had unilateral renal artery stenosis. Of these, 14 (31%) had fibromuscular dysplasia; 12 (27%) Takayasu’s arteritis; six (13%) neurofibromatosis; two (5%) Williams syndrome; one (2%) Kawasaki disease; one (2%) mid-aortic syndrome; one (2%) extrinsic compression to the renal artery, and eight (18%) unspecified bilateral renal artery stenosis. Hypertension was controlled with antihypertensive drugs in 17 patients. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTRA) or surgery had to be performed in 28 patients: PTRA in 16 patients, PTRA + surgery in one patient and surgery in 11 patients (four nephrectomies). The importance of vasculitic disease, especially Takayasu’s arteritis, should not be underestimated in children with renovascular hypertension.     

肾动脉狭窄的腔内治疗经验

目的探讨腔内治疗肾动脉狭窄的临床疗效及影响因素。方法2003年2月至2005年6月共收治19例肾动脉狭窄患者,分析其中行腔内治疗12例的临床资料。其中动脉硬化9例,多发性大动脉炎1例,纤维肌性发育不良2例。结果本组12例,均有严重高血压,1例肾功能异常。支架置入10例,技术成功率91．7％(11／12)。随访12例,随访时间3—15个月,随访平均6．5个月,患者血压从(172±26／98±15)降至(156±22／88±14)mmHg。高血压治愈2例,改善6例,未愈4例,高血压控制率为66．7％。术后肾功能无明显变化。无并发症和死亡病例。再狭窄1例,再狭窄率为8．3％。结论严格掌握手术适应证,腔内治疗肾动脉狭窄是安全、有效的。     

Percutaneous transluminal revascularization for renal artery stenosis: Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System experience.

PURPOSE: The safety and efficacy of percutaneous transluminal intervention for renal artery stenosis is improving. This study evaluates the immediate and long-term anatomic and functional outcomes of percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and stenting for atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis in a Veterans Affairs population. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of records from patients who underwent renal artery angioplasty with or without stenting at the Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System between January 1990 and June 1999. Indications for intervention included hypertension (78%) and rising serum creatinine (78%). Seventy-six patients (74 men, average age of 67 years, range 42-83 years) underwent 88 attempted interventions. Seventy-two percent of contralateral kidneys had significant disease (47% had a >60% stenosis; 16% were nonfunctioning or absent). RESULTS: Of the 88 planned interventions, 86 were successfully performed with placement of 46 stents (52%). Technical success (defined by <30% residual stenosis) was achieved in 78 vessels (89%). The procedure-related complication rate was 5%. Patient mortality by life table analysis was 49% at 5 years. Assisted primary patency rate at 5 years was 100%. Primary and secondary restenosis rates were 37% +/- 8% and 31% +/- 8% at 5 years, respectively. Sixty-eight percent of patients treated for hypertension demonstrated clinical benefit (improved or cured hypertension). This clinical benefit was maintained in 52% of the patients at 5 years, as measured by life table analysis. Serum creatinine was lowered or maintained in 88% of the patients, but this clinical benefit was only maintained in 25% of patients at 5 years. CONCLUSIONS: Transluminal intervention for clinically symptomatic atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis is technically successful and safe. There are excellent assisted-patency and low restenosis rates. There is immediate clinical benefit for most patients, as evidenced by improved control of hypertension and preservation of renal function. However, within 5 years the benefit is not maintained for either hypertension (50%) or renal function (20%). Therefore, although technically successful, functional outcomes after endoluminal intervention are not maintained in the long term.     

Transluminal vascular stent implantation for a patient with renovascular hypertension due to renal artery stenosis

In recent years, transluminal vascular stents have been implanted in patients with renal artery stenosis. At present, controversy remains as to whether the long-term outcome of stent implantation is better than that of percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA). However, until now, no clinical experience of a stent placement for renal artery stenosis has been reported in our country. We implanted a Palmaz stent in a patient with renovascular hypertenstion due to renal artery restenosis who had already undergone PTRA. The renal function and blood pressure of the patient improved remarkably.