The role of perceived need within the theory of planned behaviour: A comparison of exercise and healthy eating

Objectives: This study examined the effect of perceived need on exercise and healthy eating using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). In addition, it investigated the determinants of perceived need. Method: Participants completed a questionnaire measuring components of TPB and perceived need. A follow‐up questionnaire 1 week later measured behaviour. The questionnaires were completed by e‐mail. The initial questionnaire was completed by 331 adults, and 286 follow‐up questionnaires were returned. Results: Perceived behavioural control was the main predictor of exercise intention and affective attitude was the main predictor of healthy eating intention. Perceived need significantly contributed to the prediction of healthy eating intention but not to exercise intention. Intention and perceived behavioural control predicted actual behaviour but perceived need did not. Reasons reported for the perception of needing to engage in both behaviours mainly focused on physical health and weight control. Conclusions: Reasons reported for low perceived need suggest that the concept of perceived need may be rather ambiguous, particularly in the case of exercise. Therefore, further research is needed to elucidate the role of perceived need in relation to a variety of health behaviours.     

Using past behaviour and spontaneous implementation intentions to enhance the utility of the theory of planned behaviour in predicting exercise

Objectives. This study examined the utility of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), past behaviour, and spontaneous implementation intentions in predicting exercise behaviour. The psychological correlates of spontaneous implementation intentions and the moderating effects of intention, perceived behavioural control, past behaviour, and implementation intentions at various time points were also examined. Design. Data collection occurred over three phases with a 2‐ and 3‐week interval. The attrition rate was 35.97% leaving a total of 162 participants (63 males, 99 females). In the first wave, participants completed measures of TPB, spontaneous implementation intentions, and past behaviour. Behaviour was assessed in the second and third waves, and a follow‐up measure of spontaneous implementation intentions was completed in Phase 3. Results. Several regression analyses were conducted. Attitude towards exercise and perceived behavioural control made a significant contribution to the prediction of intention. Intention made a significant contribution to the prediction of implementation intentions. Spontaneous implementation intentions reduced the effect of intention and past behaviour for behaviour at 2 weeks and when indexed over a 5‐week period. When behaviour was measured for a 3‐week period (following an initial 2‐week period), the variance that intention and past behaviour accounted for in exercise behaviour decreased, and spontaneous implementation intentions were no longer a significant predictor of behaviour. Spontaneous implementation intentions were found to interact with past behaviour, such that implementation intentions predicted exercise behaviour only among participants who did not exercise frequently in the past. Conclusions. Implications and future research directions are discussed.     

Predicting breakfast consumption: An application of the theory of planned behaviour and the investigation of past behaviour and executive function

Objectives . The objective of the current study is to examine the determinants of breakfast consumption with the application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; 1991) and investigate the additional variables of past behaviour and executive function. Design . A prospective 1‐week study investigating the predictive ability of TPB variables, past behaviour and executive function was utilized. Methods . Ninety‐six participants were administered two measures of executive function (response inhibition and planning) and completed self‐report questionnaires regarding their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control, intentions and past behaviour of breakfast consumption. One week later, participants returned a follow‐up questionnaire on their behaviour. Results . The result of the study showed that the TPB significantly predicted intentions and prospective behaviour of breakfast consumption, however, past behaviour was found to be the strongest predictor of future behaviour. Considering executive function, response inhibition was not found to predict behaviour, however, planning ability explained unique variance in behaviour and moderated the association between intention and behaviour. Conclusions . The findings support the use of the TPB in explaining breakfast eating habits, and suggest that executive function of planning may be somewhat useful to predict this behaviour. The significance of past behaviour also suggests that breakfast consumption may commonly be a stable, habitual behaviour that may undermine the need for self‐regulation. Implications for creating behavioural‐change interventions are discussed.     

Help‐seeking intentions for breast‐cancer symptoms: A comparison of the self‐regulation model and the theory of planned behaviour

Purpose: Delays in seeking help for symptoms have been found to be associated with poorer outcome in breast‐cancer patients. This study explores symptom perceptions and health beliefs as predictors of intentions to seek medical help in a general female population. The utility of the self‐regulation model of illness cognition and the theory of planned behaviour were examined in predicting help‐seeking intentions for potential symptoms of breast cancer in a general population sample. Methods: A general population sample of 546 women completed a postal questionnaire comprising items examining components of the self‐regulation model and the theory of planned behaviour. Help‐seeking intention was determined by asking participants to rate the likelihood of visiting their GP for a range of breast symptoms. Results: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that the cognitive component of the self‐regulation model accounted for approximately 22% of the variance in help‐seeking intention. Identity (β = 0.45, p < .001) emerged as a significant predictor of intention to seek help. Inclusion of the components of the theory of planned behaviour accounted for an additional 7% of the variance; the significant predictors were attitude to help‐seeking (β = 0.19, p <.001) and perceived behavioural control (β = 0.12, p <.01). Conclusions: Intention to seek medical help for a potential breast‐cancer symptom may be mediated, partly, by cognitive representations of the identity and consequences of breast cancer and by attitudes towards help‐seeking and perceived behavioural control. Although less than one‐third of the variance was accounted for, these results have important implications for future research (in terms of identifying which variables should be examined) and for the development of a model of help‐seeking behaviour in women with breast‐cancer symptoms.     

Reasons for binge drinking among undergraduate students: An application of behavioural reasoning theory

Objectives. This study sought to apply behavioural reasoning theory (BRT) to the prediction of undergraduate students’ binge drinking intentions and behaviour. The reasons students use to justify and defend binge drinking may provide important information on motivations underlying such behaviour. Methods. Undergraduate students (N= 265) completed questionnaires assessing their reasons for and against binge drinking, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, intention, and past behaviour. Frequency of binge drinking was assessed at 1‐week follow‐up (N= 172). Results. A series of path analyses were conducted to assess the direct and indirect effects of the BRT variables on binge drinking intentions and behaviour. The variables under consideration accounted for 80% of the variance in binge drinking intentions (with past behaviour, reasons for binge drinking, and attitude having significant direct effects on intention), and 34% of the variance in binge drinking at 1‐week follow‐up (with past behaviour, perceived behavioural control, and intention having significant direct effects on future behaviour). Additional regression analyses revealed that respondents who strongly endorsed being sociable and having fun as reasons for binge drinking were more likely to intend to engage in binge drinking over the subsequent week. Conclusions. The results provide support for BRT as a framework for understanding undergraduate students’ binge drinking intentions and behaviour, and suggest that interventions need to focus on the social reasons for engaging in binge drinking in undergraduate students.     

Testing an extended theory of planned behaviour to predict young people's sun safety in a high risk area

Objectives The present research examined the sun protection intentions and behaviours of young people in a high risk skin cancer area using an extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB) incorporating additional social influences of group and image norms. Design The study employed a prospective design to examine young people's sun protection intentions and behaviour. Method Participants (N = 1,134), aged 12–20 years, were students (school, university, TAFE) and young employees living in Queensland, Australia. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing the TPB predictors (attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control) and additional social influences (group norm, image norm) of sun protection intentions. Two weeks later, participants (N = 734) reported their sun protection behaviour for the previous fortnight. Results Results revealed that the TPB variables of attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control and the additional social influence variable of group norms, but not image norms, emerged as significant predictors of intentions to engage in sun protection. The extended TPB variables accounted for 36% of the variance in intentions. For behaviour, the extended TPB variables accounted for 27% of the variance with both intention and, unexpectedly, group norm as the significant direct predictors of sun protective behaviours. Conclusions Results of this study provide support for the application of the TPB in the sun safety context and highlight the importance of considering the influence of group norms in the development of future interventions to increase young people's sun protection intentions and behaviour.     

Autonomy and control: augmenting the validity of the theory of planned behaviour in predicting exercise

This study examined the utility of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) along with additional constructs in predicting exercise, and explored the motivational antecedents of exercise intentions. Participants included 162 Canadian University College students (61% females). Measures of TPB, autonomous and controlling intention, perceived autonomy support and core autonomous intention were completed during phase 1 of data collection. Two and three weeks later behaviour was assessed. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that: (a) attitude and perceived behavioural control significantly predicted TPB intention and core autonomous intention; (b) subjective norm predicted controlling intention; and (c) perceived autonomy support predicted autonomous and core autonomous intention. TPB intention significantly predicted behaviour. TPB is a fairly useful model for predicting behaviour and important information can be gained when other measures of intention are explored.     

Predicting Automaticity in Exercise Behaviour: The Role of Perceived Behavioural Control,Affect, Intention,Action Planning,and Behaviour

Background

Habit formation has been proposed as a way to maintain behaviour over time.

Purpose

Recent evidence suggests that constructs additional to repeated performance may predict physical automaticity, but no research has yet explored possible direct impacts of intention, planning, affect, and perceived behavioural control (PBC) on automaticity.

Method

In a prospective study over a 2-week period amongst 406 undergraduate students (M _age?=?21.5 years [SD?=?2.59], 27.4 % males), we investigated main and interaction effects of past exercise behaviour, PBC, intention, planning, and affect on exercise automaticity.

Results

Results showed that — controlling for past behaviour — PBC, affect, and planning were significant and positive predictors of exercise automaticity. Decomposing a significant interaction between PBC and planning when to exercise revealed that planning became less predictive of exercise automaticity at higher levels of PBC.

Conclusion

Findings show that exercise automaticity is predicted by repeated performance and social–cognitive constructs. Further, interactions between social–cognitive predictors may be different for behavioural automaticity than for behavioural frequency.     

Use of mental simulations to change theory of planned behaviour variables

Objectives The predictive validity of the theory of planned behaviour is well established, but much less is known about: (a) whether there are causal relationships between key components of the model and (b) how to go about changing the theory of planned behaviour variables. This study tested the ability of outcome and process simulations to change variables specified in the theory of planned behaviour in relation to blood donation. Design Participants (N = 146) were randomized to one of four conditions: outcome simulation only, process simulation only, process‐plus‐outcome simulation and a distractor control condition. The dependent variables were state anxiety, and intention attitude, subjective norm and perceived control from the theory of planned behaviour. Methods Participants were asked to empty their mind and visualize themselves: (a) after donating blood (outcome manipulation), (b) preparing to donate blood (process manipulation), (c) both preparing to donate blood and after having donated blood (process‐plus‐outcome manipulation) or (d) both preparing to get a high mark and after having got a high mark on their course (control condition). Following mental rehearsal, participants completed the dependent variables. Results There were no main effects of outcome simulation, but process simulation successfully increased intention, subjective norm and perceived control. There was also a significant outcome simulation × process simulation interaction for attitude. The effect of the process manipulation on intention was mediated by subjective norm and perceived control. Conclusions The findings show promise for the use of mental simulations in changing cognitions and further research is required to extend the present findings to other health behaviours.     

Promoting exercise behaviour: An integration of persuasion theories and the theory of planned behaviour

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a theoretical integrated persuasive message on exercise motivation in college students. Method: Four hundred and fifty introductory psychology students (M age = 20.02 years;SD = 3.94) were randomly assigned to reading positively or negatively framed strong messages advocating exercise. The messages were attributed to a credible source, a non‐credible source or to a no‐source control condition. Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) constructs (i.e. attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control) and cognitive responses (i.e. thought listing) were measured immediately and 2 weeks following the delivery of the intervention. Results: Unfortunately, the results did not corroborate previous research, as we did not find any significant effects between experimental groups on any psychological or behavioural variable. Conclusions: There may be several potential explanations for the lack of effects, including the interaction between the type of persuasive information (TPB implications) and sources of persuasion and how these persuasive messages are processed (elaboration likelihood model/cognitive response implications). The theoretical implications of this research are discussed with a view towards future directions for exercise promotion initiatives using theoretically driven interventions.     

Understanding young and older male drivers' willingness to drive while intoxicated: The predictive utility of constructs specified by the theory of planned behaviour and the prototype willingness model

Objective. The present study examined the predictive utility of constructs specified by the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and prototype willingness model (PWM) for young and older male drivers' willingness to drive while intoxicated. Design and methods. A cross‐sectional questionnaire was employed. Two hundred male drivers, recruited via a street survey, voluntarily completed measures of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, prototype perceptions, and willingness. Results. Findings showed that the TPB and PWM variables explained 65% of the variance in young male drivers' willingness and 47% of the variance in older male drivers' willingness, with the interaction between prototype favourability and similarity contributing 7% to the variance explained in older males' willingness to drive while intoxicated. Conclusions. The findings possess implications for theory, research, and anti‐drink driving campaigns.     

Belief importance and the theory of planned behaviour: Comparing modal and ranked modal beliefs in predicting attendance at breast screening

Objective: The objective of this study was, to compare the predictive utility of two measures of the attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control constructs of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991) in predicting intention and subsequent attendance at breast screening. One construct was based on a modal set of underlying beliefs; the other was based on the three beliefs from each construct considered by the participant to be the most important. Method: We used a prospective, longitudinal design using a postal questionnaire at Time 1 and objective attendance data from screening records at Time 2. Questionnaires were sent to 1657 women from southeast England due to be invited for X‐ray mammography under the UK's National Health Service Breast Screening Programme. After evaluating a set of modal behavioural, normative and control beliefs, women were asked to select the three beliefs they saw as the most important for them, and to rank them. The products of these three beliefs formed the ‘important’ (vs. the modal) measures. Results: The ‘important’ attitude and subjective norm measures showed similar associations with direct measures and were equivalent to the modal measures in predicting intention and attendance at screening. The modal control construct was marginally more robust than the ‘important’ one in its association with the direct measure of control, and with intention. Key individual important beliefs that predicted intention and behaviour were identified. Conclusions: Measuring belief importance can help more fully identify the structures underlying attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control, and can provide useful information when the TPB is used as the basis for intervention to help change behaviour.     

Predicting Intended Condom Use among Tanzanian Students using the Theory of Planned Behaviour

This study examined whether perceived behavioural control predicted the intention to use condoms at next sexual intercourse above the components of the theory of reasoned action, as well as the sufficiency of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) as a theory of intention among Tanzanian adolescents. Five hundred and twenty-eight students who were sexually active, from seven secondary schools in Arusha, Northern Tanzania, completed a questionnaire designed to measure the components of the TPB. Behavioural intentions were significantly predictable from attitudes (.11), subjective norms (.22) and perceived behavioural control (.48). The inclusion of past behaviour into the regression equation increased R(2) only marginally (2 percent) but significantly, suggesting that the TPB provides a fairly accurate explanation of intention to use condoms among Tanzanian adolescents. The implications of this finding in relation to theoretical and practical issues are discussed.     

Sexting prevalence and correlates: A systematic literature review

Despite considerable controversy and speculation regarding sexting behaviour and its associated risks, to date there has been no integration and analysis of empirical literature on this topic. To collect and synthesise findings of the prevalence of sexting, its correlates, and the context in which it occurs, a systematic search of databases was conducted. Thirty-one studies, reporting on sexting prevalence and a diverse range of related variables, met inclusion criteria. The estimated mean prevalence weighted by sample size was calculated, with trends indicating sexting is more prevalent amongst adults than adolescents, older age is predictive of sexting for adolescents but not adults, and more individuals report receiving sexts than sending them. The correlates of sexting behaviour were grouped in terms of demographic variables, sexual and sexual risk behaviours, attitudes towards sexting, perceived outcomes of sexting, motivations for sexting, mental health and well-being variables, and attachment dimensions. Findings are discussed in terms of the trends indicated by the data, which provided substantiation that sexting behaviour is associated with numerous behavioural, psychological, and social factors. Limitations of the current research literature and future directions are also presented.     

Helping Middle-Aged Women Translate Physical Activity Intentions Into Action: Combining the Theory of Planned Behavior and Implementation Intentions

The current experiment examined whether women with implementation intentions show greater correspondence between their exercise intentions and behaviors, exercise more frequently, and show changes over time in measures of theory of planned behavior (TPB) constructs and scheduling self-efficacy relative to a control group. Participants were 47 women randomly allocated to an implementation intentions or control condition. Measures of TPB constructs and scheduling self-efficacy were assessed at baseline and 8 weeks later. Regression analyses showed that intentions were a significant predictor of behavior for women in the experimental condition (p .01). A significant Condition * Time interaction was found for scheduling efficacy (p .03) and a nonsignificant interaction was found for perceived behavioral control (p = .06), indicating that only the experimental group increased scheduling self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control. No significant group differences were found for the other TPB constructs or self-reported exercise.     

Does action planning moderate the intention-habit interaction in the exercise domain? A three-way interaction analysis investigation

Both habit strength and action planning have been found to moderate the intention-exercise behaviour relationship, but no research exists that has investigated how habit strength and action planning simultaneously influence this relationship. The present study was designed to explore this issue in a prospective sample of undergraduate students (N = 415): action planning, habit strength, intention, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control were assessed at baseline and exercise behaviour was assessed 2 weeks later. Both habit strength and action planning moderated the intention-exercise relationship, with stronger relationship at higher levels of planning or habit strength. Decomposing a significant action planning × habit strength × intention interaction showed that the strength of the intention-exercise relationship progressed linearly through levels of action planning and habit strength. These novel results show that action planning strengthens the intention-habit strength interaction in the exercise domain: exercise interventions should therefore focus on simultaneously bolstering action planning and habit strength.     

Social cognitive and physical health determinants of exercise adherence for HIV-1 seropositive, early symptomatic men and women

This study examined social cognitive and physical health factors that might explain variations in exercise adherence in a 3-month supervised exercise intervention for a group of mildly symptomatic, HIV-1 seropositive men and women. The social cognitive predictor variables were outcome expectations and self-efficacy. The physical health predictor variables included CD4 cell counts, self-report inventories of physical symptoms, and physicians’ examinations. Self-report inventories of physical symptoms were associated with physicians’ examinations and combined into a composite measure of physical health. Criterion variables included exercise adherence rates, VO_{2 max} change, and status as a “remainer” versus “drop-out.” The composite measure of physical health emerged as a significant predictor of adherence rate and gave perfect prediction of remainers and a moderate prediction of dropouts. No significant associations were observed between the social cognitive predictors and adherence. Results suggest that for this population physical health status is a better predictor of exercise adherence than either perceived self-efficacy or outcome expectancy.