Dysregulation of macrophage activation by decidual regulatory T cells in unexplained recurrent miscarriage patients

CD4⁺CD25⁺ T cells (Treg cells) and macrophages play roles in the maintenance of maternal–fetal immunological tolerance. Treg cells suppress the function of macrophages via mechanisms mediated by cell–cell contact and production of soluble factors. The purpose of this study was to investigate regulation of macrophages by Treg cells within decidua from patients with unexplained recurrent miscarriage (RM) and normal control women during early pregnancy. Treg cells and macrophages were isolated from deciduas of unexplained RM (n = 15) and control women (n = 15) by magnetic cell separation and co-cultured for six days. Regulation of macrophages by Treg cells was assessed in the presence and absence of neutralizing anti-TGFβ antibodies and in transwell experiments. Expression of CD80, CD86, IL10, and IFNγ by macrophages was measured by flow cytometry or ELISA. Macrophage expression of CD80 and CD86 was higher in deciduas of unexplained RM patients compared with controls whereas the expression of IL10 was lower. There was no difference in the expression of IFNγ by macrophages between the two groups. Treg cells inhibited macrophage expression of CD80, CD86 and IFNγ and increased the expression of IL10. The regulatory effects of Treg cells were abrogated in the presence of neutralizing anti-TGFβ antibodies or by transwell culture. The phenotype of macrophages therefore differed in unexplained RM patients compared with normal early pregnant subjects. Macrophage regulation by Treg cells was shown to be mediated by cell–cell contact and TGFβ and this capacity was decreased in unexplained RM patients.     

原因不明复发性流产患者巨噬细胞表面TSP1、CD36、CD47的表达及其细胞因子的分泌

目的:探讨巨噬细胞表面分子凝血酶敏感蛋白1(TSP1)、CD36、CD47及其分泌细胞因子IL-10和IFN-γ与原因不明复发性流产发病的关系。方法:采用流式细胞技术检测10例原因不明复发性流产患者和20例正常早孕妇女外周血及蜕膜巨噬细胞表面TSP1、CD36、CD47的表达;同时用ELISPOT法检测两组外周血及蜕膜分泌IL-10和IFN-γ的巨噬细胞数。结果:原因不明复发性流产患者外周血巨噬细胞TSP1、CD36、CD47表达水平及其分泌IL-10和IFN-γ的细胞数与正常早孕妇女均无统计学差异。与正常早孕妇女比较,原因不明复发性流产患者蜕膜巨噬细胞CD36表达水平明显升高(P<0.01),TSP1表达水平明显降低(P<0.01),CD47表达水平无明显差异(P>0.05)。蜕膜组织分泌IL-10的巨噬细胞数显著降低(P<0.05),而分泌IFN-γ的巨噬细胞数量无明显差异。结论:蜕膜巨噬细胞在维持正常妊娠免疫耐受和导致原因不明复发性流产发病中起重要作用。     

Decidual CD4+CD25+CD127dim/- regulatory T cells in patients with unexplained recurrent spontaneous miscarriage

Objectives

To investigate the frequency and function of CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^dim/− regulatory T (Treg) cells in decidua of patients with unexplained recurrent spontaneous miscarriage (URSM).

Study design

The decidual lymphocytes from patients who experienced URSM and normal pregnant women (controls) were collected by Ficoll density gradient centrifugation. CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^dim/− Treg cells were isolated by magnetic cell sorting. The proportion of Treg cells and IL-10, TGF-β in Treg cells were determined by flow cytometry. Inhibitory effects of Treg cells on effecter T cells were detected with or without the presentation of anti-IL-10 antibodies and anti-TGF-β antibodies.

Results

The frequency of CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^dim/− Treg cells was decreased in URSM decidua compared to controls (2.09% ± 0.86% vs. 2.97% ± 1.19%, p = 0.005), and the expression of IL-10 and TGF-β in Treg cells was lower in the URSM group than in the control group (p = 0.04 and p = 0.01, respectively). Furthermore, the suppressive effect of CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^dim/− Treg cells on the proliferation of effector T cells was decreased in URSM decidua (p < 0.05). Suppression was mediated predominantly through IL-10 and TGF-β in decidua.

Conclusions

Decreased frequency and immunosuppressive capacity of CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^dim/− Treg cells was found in URSM decidua. Treg cells inhibit proliferation of effector T cells mainly via IL-10 and TGF-β in URSM decidua.     

The association of HLA-G and immune markers in recurrent miscarriages

Objective: To determine role of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-G, CD8, CD16, CD56, interferon (IFN)-γ, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α for recurrent miscarriages in feto–maternal interface.

Method: Chorion and decidua samples were obtained from 11 women with unwanted pregnancies (healthy pregnancy, HP) and 10 women with missed abortion diagnosis after at least two pregnancy losses (recurrent miscarriage, RM). In addition, endometrial tissues were obtained from 10 non-pregnant women (NonP). The expressions of markers were evaluated using the Western blot analysis. The values obtained between different groups were compared.

Results: The highest protein expression of CD56 was found in the HP compared to NonP and RM. Meanwhile, the lowest protein expression of CD16 was observed in the NonP compared to HP and RM. The HLA-G expression exhibited the highest level in HP; however, there was no statistically significant difference between groups. CD8 and IFNγ expressions were lowest in the NonP group; however, TNF-α was highest in the RM group.

Conclusions: The CD56 expression of uterine NK cells may be an indicator of a HP. However, not statistically significant, the increased expression of CD16, CD8, and also significantly increased expression of TNF may be associated with the predominant cytotoxic activity in the maternal immune system in patients with RM. Although there was no change in the expression of HLA-G, this finding may mean that the maternal immune system is unresponsive to HLA-G-mediated immunosuppressive signals originating from the fetus in these cases.     

妊娠早期蜕膜组织巨噬细胞分泌IL-10/IFN-γ功能的特征

目的:探讨正常妊娠早期母胎界面蜕膜组织与外周血中细胞因子分泌的格局以及单核/巨噬细胞分泌IL-10/IFN-γ的功能特征。方法:收集9例接受人工流产的正常早孕妇女外周血和蜕膜组织,用MACS法富集单核/巨噬细胞,用ELISPOT法检测细胞因子。结果:在正常妊娠早期,母胎界面蜕膜组织分泌IL-10的细胞细胞和分泌IFN-γ细胞比值显著高于外周血;蜕膜巨噬细胞分泌IL-10数量明显高于外周血单核细胞,亦明显高于蜕膜组织非巨噬细胞。结论:蜕膜组织分泌细胞因子格局的特征与外周血有差异,可能是母胎免疫耐受形成的重要途径。蜕膜巨噬细胞可通过增强IL-10的分泌调节母胎界面细胞因子格局,有利于诱导母胎免疫耐受。     

不明原因复发性流产患者蜕膜巨噬细胞活性变化及其细胞因子分泌

目的:探讨蜕膜巨噬细胞内活性氧(ROS)、吞噬活性、细胞因子IL-10和IFNγ的分泌,与原因不明复发性流产发病的关系。方法:应用磁珠细胞分选法从11例原因不明复发性流产患者和12例正常早孕妇女蜕膜中分离巨噬细胞,采用流式细胞技术检测蜕膜巨噬细胞内ROS水平,中性红实验检测巨噬细胞吞噬活性,应用ELISPOT法检测细胞因子IL-10和IFNγ分泌。结果:与正常早孕者相比,原因不明复发性流产患者蜕膜巨噬细胞内ROS水平升高(222.55±46.74vs170.75±17.51,P<0.01),其吞噬活性增强(0.37±0.14vs0.17±0.98,P<0.01),IL-10/IFNγ下降(1.37±0.88vs7.69±3.78,P<0.01)。结论:蜕膜巨噬细胞活性改变以及其分泌的细胞因子格局变化可能是导致原因不明复发性流产发病的机制之一。     

调节性T细胞和Notch1信号通路在原因不明复发性自然流产中的作用

目的探讨调节性T细胞(Treg)和Notch1信号通路在原因不明复发性自然流产(URSA)中的作用。方法流式细胞仪检测URSA患者(URSA组)及正常妊娠妇女(对照组)蜕膜CD4~+CD25~+T细胞Treg表达比例,real time RT-PCR及Western blotting检测蜕膜中CD4~+T细胞中Notch1信号通路和叉头转录因子家族3(Foxp3)表达情况。结果 URSA组CD4~+CD25~+T细胞/淋巴细胞、CD4~+Foxp3~+T细胞/淋巴细胞和CD4~+Foxp3~+T细胞/CD4~+T细胞比例均低于对照组(P0.05)。URSA组CD4~+T细胞中Notch1-Ic、RBPJκ、Foxp3 m RNA及蛋白表达均低于对照组。结论 URSA患者蜕膜CD4~+T细胞中Notch1信号通路和Foxp3表达下调,CD4~+CD25~+T细胞表达比例下降,提示URSA患者Notch1信号通路和Foxp3表达下调可能阻碍CD4~+T细胞转化为CD4~+CD25~+T细胞,进而诱发免疫排斥,诱导流产。     

原因不明复发性流产患者蜕膜CD4~+CD25~+CD127~(dim/-) Treg细胞的表达频率和功能研究

目的:探讨原因不明复发性流产(URSA)患者母胎界面免疫耐受环境的变化。方法:留取URSA患者21例(URSA组)和30例正常早孕人流妇女(对照组)蜕膜组织,制备成单个核细胞悬液,流式细胞术分析CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞的表达频率;取两组蜕膜单个核细胞悬液各5例,用免疫磁珠分离法分离出CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞,流式细胞术分析CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞内IL-10和TGF-β的表达水平;体外增殖抑制试验分别检测用抗IL-10抗体和抗TGF-β抗体处理的CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞,和未用抗体处理的CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞对自身效应T细胞增殖的抑制作用。结果:URSA组蜕膜CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞的表达频率明显低于对照组(P=0.005);URSA组蜕膜CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞内IL-10和TGF-β表达频率均较对照组明显降低(P=0.04,P=0.01);URSA组CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞对自体效应性T细胞的增殖抑制作用显著低于对照组(P0.05),且抗IL-10抗体和抗TGF-β抗体可部分阻断蜕膜CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞的免疫抑制功能(P均0.05)。结论:URSA患者蜕膜CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞不仅表达频率降低,而且免疫抑制功能也减弱,且这种免疫抑制功能的减弱主要受IL-10和TGF-β介导,揭示CD4+CD25+CD127dim/-Treg细胞对URSA患者蜕膜局部免疫耐受环境产生影响。     

Comparison of macrophage phenotype between decidua basalis and decidua parietalis by flow cytometry

The two regions of the maternal decidua, decidua basalis and decidua parietalis, differ in the extent of trophoblast invasion and consequently in cytokines and other biological mediators, extracellular matrix and cellular components. Our aim was to compare the phenotypic features of macrophages from the two decidual regions across a broad gestational age range. We isolated macrophages by enzymatic digestion from healthy decidua samples obtained after elective abortions, at 9-18-week and at 19-23-weeks, or after term deliveries (caesarean sections at term and spontaneous term vaginal deliveries). Macrophages were analysed by flow cytometry applying the same instrument settings to all the samples to allow semi-quantitative comparison of the expression of a particular marker between different samples. We found higher expressions of CD80, CD86 and HLA-DR, suggestive of a more activated phenotype of decidual macrophages, at early/mid pregnancy than at term. Marginal differences were found between term decidual macrophages obtained after spontaneous vaginal deliveries or caesarean sections which imply that the parturient process is not associated with decidual macrophage activation. The expressions of CD105, DC-SIGN and MMR were the strongest in decidua basalis of mid pregnancy and indicate the importance of decidual macrophages in tissue homeostasis at the uteroplacental interface.     

巨噬细胞对卵巢癌细胞SKOV3生物学功能的影响

目的:研究巨噬细胞对卵巢癌细胞株SKOV3生物学功能的影响。方法:(1)体外采用IL-4和佛波醇酯(PMA)分别诱导M2和M1型巨噬细胞,流式细胞仪鉴定分型;(2)Tranwell小室建立巨噬细胞与卵巢癌细胞SKOV3体外非接触式共培养模型。比较共培养后,SKOV3的增殖和凋亡、迁移和侵袭的变化。MTT法检测增殖;流式细胞仪Annexin V-FITC/PI双染检测凋亡;Transwell检测侵袭和迁移。结果:(1)IL-4诱导的巨噬细胞高表达CD163,为M2型,PMA诱导组高表达HLA-DR,为M1型。SKOV3和普通巨噬细胞共培养后,巨噬细胞CD163高表达。(2)SKOV3的增殖和凋亡:M2共培养组SK-OV3的增殖活性显著高于M1共培养组和普通共培养组(P<0.05)。M2共培养组SKOV3的凋亡率显著低于M1共培养组和普通共培养组(P<0.05)。(3)SKOV3的迁移和侵袭:M2共培养组SKOV3的侵袭能力显著强于M1共培养组和普通共培养组(P<0.01)。M2共培养组SKOV3的迁移能力显著强于M1共培养组和普通共培养组(P<0.05)。结论:共培养卵巢癌细胞使巨噬细胞M2表型极化。M2型巨噬细胞促进卵巢癌细胞增殖,提高侵袭、迁移能力,减少凋亡,而M1型起相反作用。     

Rapid clearance of herpes simplex virus type 2 by CD8+ T cells requires high level expression of effector T cell functions

CD8(+) T cells are important for resolution of HSV-2 lesions from the female genital epithelium. It is uncertain whether optimal clearance of viruses such as HSV-2 that cause a limited, non-systemic infection solely requires expression of effector functions by infiltrating CD8(+) T lymphocytes, or if the clearance rate is reflective of the expression level of critical effector functions. To address this, CD8(+) T cells from normal OT-I mice or OT-I mice deficient in IFNγ (IFNγ(-/-)) or the IFNγ receptor (IFNγR(-/-)) were activated in vitro in the presence of IFNγ or IL-4 to generate a series of effector populations (Tc1 and Tc2-like respectively) that secreted different levels of IFNγ and expressed different levels of HSV-specific cytolytic function. Compared with Tc1 cells, Tc2-like cells produced the type 2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-5, exhibited decreased IFNγ secretion, diminished proliferation in vitro, and decreased antigen-specific cytolysis in vivo. Clearance of an ovalbumin-expressing HSV-2 strain (HSV-2 tk(-) OVA) by adoptively transferred Tc2-like cells was delayed relative to Tc1 cell recipients. Because donor Tc2-like cells proliferated in vivo and infiltrated the infected genital epithelium similar to Tc1 cells, the diminished virus clearance by Tc2-like effector cells correlated with reduced expression of critical effector functions. Together, these results suggest that high level expression of protective T cell functions by effector T cells is necessary for optimal clearance of HSV-2 from the genital epithelium. These results have important implications for vaccines designed to elicit CD8(+) T cells against viruses such as HSV-2 that infect the genital tract.     

TGF-β1在早孕妇女外周血和蜕膜组织中诱导生成T调节性(Treg)细胞

目的:研究TGF-β1是否能在人母-胎界面诱导生成T调节性(Treg)细胞。方法:早孕妇女外周血和蜕膜CD4+CD25-T细胞中加入不同浓度的TGF-β1(0 ng/ml、2 ng/ml、5 ng/ml、10 ng/ml)分别于培养后第2日、第4日和第6日用流式细胞仪检测培养Foxp3的表达情况,随后将诱导生成的CD4+Foxp3+T细胞与CD8+T细胞混合培养,观察后者凋亡因子CD95配体(CD95L)的表达情况。结果:体外培养中,TGF-β1可诱导早孕妇女的外周血和蜕膜CD4+CD25-T细胞生成诱导性Treg细胞,随着培养时间增加而增强诱导效应,且在TGF-β1浓度为5 ng/ml时诱导功能最强;诱导生成的CD4+Foxp3+T细胞具有促进效应细胞CD8+T细胞凋亡的功能。结论:体外培养中,TGF-β1能将人外周血和蜕膜诱导生成Treg细胞,且具有免疫抑制功能,有良好的免疫治疗前景。     

Programming of human monocytes by the uteroplacental environment

During human pregnancy, monocytes recruited to the uterus (decidua) are modified to promote immune defense and semiallogeneic pregnancy. The purpose of this study was to identify decidual factors involved in programming of monocytes into decidual macrophages by comparing the surface and secretory phenotypes of resting and interferon- gamma (IFN-gamma)-activated monocytes, unfractionated decidual cells, purified term decidual macrophages, and monocyte-derived macrophages. Surface markers for antigen presentation (HLA-DR, CD86), a membrane-bound cytokine interleukin (IL)-15, leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors (LILRB1, LILRB2), and secreted anti-inflammatory cytokines (transforming growth factor [TGF]-beta1 and IL-10) were assessed. The results demonstrate that differentiated, activated monocytes closely resemble but are not identical to decidual macrophages. In addition to differential IFN-gamma responsiveness, decidual macrophages were smaller than monocyte-derived macrophages and produced IL-10, which monocyte-derived macrophages did not. Only the unfractionated decidual cells secreted TGF-beta1. These results suggest that activation, differentiation, and decidual signals cooperate to program monocytes into the decidual macrophage phenotype.     

Tumor-associated glycoprotein (TAG-72) is a natural ligand for the C-type lectin-like domain that induces anti-inflammatory orientation of early pregnancy decidual CD1a+ dendritic cells

Tumor-associated glycoprotein-72 (TAG-72) is physiologically present in secretory phase endometrium, but its presence and possible immunological role in early normal human pregnancy decidua has not received attention. The double labeling of paraffin-embedded early pregnancy decidua sections using B-72.4 anti-TAG-72 mAb and MNF 116 anti-cytokeratin mAb revealed the absence of TAG-72 in uterine decidua of normal and pathological pregnancies (non-embryonic pregnancy and missed abortion) at the implantation sites, although it was present in epithelial cells at and away from the tubal implantation site of an ectopic pregnancy. TAG-72 binds and internalizes by reacting with the mannose receptor (MR-CD206) or with DC-specific ICAM reacting non-integrin (DC-SIGN-CD209) on decidual CD1a+ cells. Decidual CD1a+ cells stimulated with TAG-72 decreased CD83 expression and diminished IL-15 and IFN-γ intracellular production. TAG-72-treated CD1a+ cells decreased IFN-γ production in syngenic decidual and allogenic cord blood T cells even in the presence of lipopolysaccharide. TAG-72- and lipopolysaccharide-pre-treated CD1a+ cells significantly increased IL-4 expression in allogenic cord blood T cells. TAG-72 increased allogenic cord blood T cell proliferation, mediated by decidual CD1a+ cells, compared with its effect on the proliferation of syngenic decidual T cells. All these data emphasize the anti-inflammatory properties of TAG-72-treated decidual CD1a+ cells in terms of their interaction with T cells. Thus, the absence of TAG-72 at the maternal-fetal interface during early pregnancy could lead to a mild pro-inflammatory response that may be beneficial for pregnancy success and trophoblast growth control.     

Treg和Th17在原因不明性复发性流产发病中作用的探讨

目的:探讨原因不明性复发性流产(URSA)患者和正常孕妇间Treg和Th17细胞因子的表达差异。方法:选择URSA患者20例为研究组,正常早孕妇女20例为正常对照组,采用逆转录-聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)法检测两组蜕膜组织及外周血中Foxp3、ROR-γt、IL-17A及EBi3 mRNA的表达,酶联免疫吸附(ELISA)法测定血清中IL-17A及IL-35的含量。结果:URSA组蜕膜及外周血中Th17因子(ROR-γt、IL-17A)的表达均显著高于正常对照组(P=0.000),而Treg因子(Foxp3、EBi3)的表达均显著低于正常对照组(P=0.000)。两组蜕膜中各因子表达量均显著高于外周血(P<0.05)。正常孕妇组蜕膜中Foxp3、ROR-γt、EBi3 mRNA的表达与外周血中的表达显著相关(P=0.000、0.007、0.000,r=0.901、0.612、0.943);URSA组仅ROR-γt mRNA在蜕膜及外周血的表达存在相关性(P=0.012),且相关系数不佳(r=0.548<0.75)。URSA组、正常对照组血清中IL-17A含量分别为(16.120±4.155)pg/ml、(5.460±2.036)pg/ml,IL-35含量分别为(11.525±2.262)pg/ml、(31.515±3.473)pg/ml,差异显著。结论:Treg和Th17细胞因子在URSA患者和正常孕妇间存在显著差异,表明Treg和Th17细胞比例失调可能在原因不明性复发性流产的发病中起一定作用。     

Trophoblast debris modulates the expression of immune proteins in macrophages: a key to maternal tolerance of the fetal allograft?

Interactions between maternal immune cells and the placenta are of substantial interest since diseases of pregnancy, such as recurrent miscarriage, villitis of unknown etiology and preeclampsia may arise due to inadequate adaptation of the maternal immune system. During normal pregnancy trophoblast debris is shed from the placenta into the maternal blood in large quantities. This trophoblast debris is then rapidly cleared from the maternal circulation. In this study, we exposed trophoblast debris generated from an in vitro placental explant model to peripheral blood-derived macrophages and quantified a variety of molecules that are important in immune responses by ELISA or flow cytometry. Phagocytosis of trophoblast debris resulted in reduced cell-surface expression of MHC-II molecules, the costimulatory molecules (CD80, CD86, CD40 and B7H3), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), inter-cellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and IL-8 receptors in macrophages while the expression of programmed death-1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) was upregulated. In addition, phagocytosis of trophoblast debris induced the secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10, IL6 and IL1Ra and decreased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL12p70 and IL-8 by macrophages. Phagocytosis of trophoblast debris also increased macrophage expression of the immunosuppressive enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). We have shown that phagocytosis of trophoblast debris from normal placentae alters the phenotype of macrophages such that they are likely to deviate maternal immune responses towards tolerance and away from inflammation. This may be one of the mechanisms that allow the human fetal allograft to survive in direct contact with the maternal immune system.     

Th17 cells and related cytokines in unexplained recurrent spontaneous miscarriage at the implantation window

Unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) might be caused by the mother's immunological rejection of the fetus. In this cross-sectional study, the percentage of T helper 17 (Th17), T regulatory (Treg) cells and their cytokines as the main players of immunomodulation in peripheral blood lymphocytes during the luteal phase of 20 women with unexplained RSA were compared with 20 normal non-pregnant women. The percentage of Treg cells in the former was significantly lower compared with controls. The percentage of Th17 cells in the former was higher than controls. Expression of IL-23, IL-17, IL-6 cytokines in the former was significantly higher than controls, but the higher expression of IL-21 was not significant. The gene expression of TGF-β and FoxP3 in the former was lower than controls. Significant positive correlations were found between the percentage of Th17 cells with IL-23, IL-6 and IL-17 and between expression of IL-23 and IL-6 and IL-17. IL-6 gene expression showed a significant positive correlation with IL-17. Therefore, imbalance of Th17–Treg cells and the consequent changes in cytokine expression might be implicated in the pathogenesis of unexplained RSA and may provide new insight into the immunoregulatory events at the maternal–fetal interface.     

Dynamic changes in primate endometrial leukocyte populations: differential distribution of macrophages and natural killer cells at the rhesus monkey implantation site and in early pregnancy

The distribution of uterine leukocytes during the periimplantation period cannot be readily evaluated in human pregnancy. Using immunohistochemistry we examined the distribution of macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and T cells in the non-pregnant endometrium and in the decidua at early stages of implantation and pregnancy in the rhesus monkey. CD68+ macrophages, CD56+ lymphocytes and CD3+ T cells were present in the proliferative and secretory endometrium. The number of macrophages and CD56+ lymphocytes dramatically increased at implantation (day 14-15 of pregnancy) and continued to be high in early pregnancy decidua. Macrophages were conspicuously more numerous in proximity to implantation site (decidua basalis) as compared to sites peripheral to the developing placenta (decidua parietalis), and were found in close association with cytotrophoblasts adjacent to the decidua, as well as around arteries invaded by extravillous cytotrophoblasts. In contrast to macrophages, CD56+ lymphocytes were more evenly distributed throughout the decidua. Few CD3+ T cells were seen in pregnancy, being scattered in the endometrial stroma with occasional aggregate formation. The distribution of uterine leukocytes vis-à-vis trophoblasts at the rhesus monkey implantation site and in early pregnancy suggests different roles for macrophages and uterine NK cells in the response to trophoblast invasion.     

Effect of menstrual cycle variation in female sex hormones on cellular immunity and regulation

Ovarian steroid hormones reduce cell-mediated immunity (CMI), perhaps by increasing regulatory T cells. We examined the relationship of estrogen and progesterone plasma concentrations during the menstrual cycle with circulating regulatory T cells (Treg cells) and with varicella-zoster virus (VZV)-specific lymphocyte proliferation (VZV-LPA). Twenty healthy and 20 HIV-infected women were tested at 1-4, 10-14, and 20-24days of the menstrual cycle. HIV-infected women experienced significant increases in the frequency of peripheral blood CD4+IL10+ and CD8+FoxP3+ Treg cells from the early and late follicular phases to the luteal phase of their cycles. Healthy women experienced significant increases only in CD4+IL10+ Treg cells. The increase in CD4+IL10+ Treg cells between the late follicular and the luteal phases of HIV-infected and uninfected women significantly correlated with the corresponding increases in progesterone plasma concentrations. VZV-LPA results decreased from the early and late follicular phases to the luteal phase in both groups. The decrease in VZV-LPA results significantly correlated with the increase in CD4+IL10+ Treg cells underscoring the potential immunosuppressive effect of the progesterone-stimulated Treg cells. In conclusion, the increase in progesterone levels during the menstrual cycle was associated with higher Treg frequencies and lower CMI.     

Selective distribution and pregnancy-specific expression of DC-SIGN at the maternal-fetal interface in the rhesus macaque: DC-SIGN is a putative marker of the recognition of pregnancy

We performed immunohistochemical analysis of DC-SIGN expression at the maternal-fetal interface at different stages of pregnancy in the rhesus monkey. Natural killer cells, monocytes and macrophages were observed in the nonpregnant endometrium, particularly in the luteal phase, and were increased in pregnant endometrium. No DC-SIGN+ cells were observed in the nonpregnant uterus. We observed decidual DC-SIGN+ cells within 1 week of implantation, and they increased in number during the first 5 weeks of gestation. DC-SIGN+ cells showed a clear differential distribution in the decidua in the first 2 weeks of pregnancy, being found only adjacent to the implantation site, in marked contrast to the widespread distribution of CD68+ macrophages and CD56+ NK cells throughout the endometrium. DC-SIGN+ cells also showed a more dendritic morphology than the general CD68+ cell population, and analysis of serial sections indicated an overlapping but not identical localization of these markers. Mature dendritic cells could not be detected as judged by total absence of immunostaining for CD83, CD86, DEC-205, or CD1a. DC-SIGN+ cells were defined as MHC class II+ and CD14+ by flow cytometry. We conclude that DC-SIGN expression is an early response by the primate maternal immune system to the implanting embryo. The selectively distributed population of DC-SIGN+ decidual leukocytes may represent a morphologically and phenotypically distinct subpopulation of decidual macrophages of early pregnancy that could contribute to the establishment of maternal-fetal immune tolerance.