Isocaloric meal and snack foods differentially affect eating behavior

The present study tested whether foods categorized as meals reduce subsequent intake more than isocaloric foods categorized as snacks. The study was repeated three times with variations. In each variation we manipulated whether subjects received meal or snack foods in an isocaloric load. In Variation 1, subjects consumed less following a load of meal foods than snacks. Variation 2 found this effect to be short-term, affecting food choice 20 min following a load but not 3 h later. Variation 3 demonstrated: (1) this effect occurs independent of the effects of the weights of foods, and (2) this effect varies specifically with subject perceptions of foods (i.e. whether they are part of a meal or snack). These results are discussed in terms of how cognitive representations of preload foods can influence subsequent consumption.     

A comparison between liking ratings obtained under laboratory and field conditions: the role of choice

The relationship between laboratory and field data was investigated for nine different groupings of 5-7 foods: two main dish groupings, four snack item groupings, and three specific meals. Liking ratings on the nine-point hedonic scale were obtained in an US Army field study and for the same foods in a sensory laboratory. In a subsequent choice simulation laboratory with two food groupings, we offered subjects some choice (three out of six or seven items) among to which foods they would evaluate. The results showed high correlations between lab and field ratings for the snack food groupings (0.58-0.94), but low correlations for the main dishes (-0.05-0.26) and meal components (-0.07-0.41). Correlations between mean field and mean laboratory data improved when laboratory subjects were offered a choice of foods. The ability of laboratory ratings to predict acceptability of foods consumed under realistic conditions appears to depend on the type of food, and may be better for foods used as snacks than for main dishes. Laboratory conditions in which subjects had some degree of choice among foods improved the relationship with the field data. It is important to pay more attention to experimental variables that may improve the validity of sensory laboratory tests.     

Glucose and insulin responses to manufactured and whole-food snacks

To determine whether realistic snacks containing added sugar evoke excessive insulin responses, 10 healthy subjects consumed four different snack meals, similar in fat and total energy content. Two snacks were based on sugary, manufactured products (chocolate-coated candy bar; cola drink with crisps) and two on whole foods (raisins and peanuts; bananas and peanuts). After the processed-food snacks, plasma-glucose levels tended to rise higher and to fall lower than after the whole-food snacks. The area under the plasma insulin curve was 70% greater after the manufactured snacks than after the raisin-peanut snack. The banana-peanut snack evoked an intermediate insulin response. One subject had pathological insulinaemia after both manufactured snacks but normal responses after both whole-food snacks. These findings suggest that foods and drinks containing added fiber-depleted sugars stress and sometimes overwhelm homeostatic mechanisms but also suggest that the insulin response to food is influenced by the physical state of the food.     

Children's frequency of consumption of foods high in fat and sodium

We administered a food frequency instrument to third-fifth grade students (n = 943) in four Texas schools. Comparison of foods reported on the food frequency questionnaire and on 24-hour dietary recalls (n = 7) produced a percent agreement of 83.3. The most frequent 25 foods accounted for 64.0% of food choices across all meals, 93.5% of breakfast choices, 76.4% of lunch choices, 70.5% of supper choices, and 76.0% of snack choices. Breads, milk, hamburger or steak, soda pop, tomato sauce or tomatoes, and cheese were the most frequently consumed foods. Fruits and juices accounted for 6.1% of total selections for boys and 6.6% for girls, while vegetables accounted for 15.7% of total selections for boys and 16.2% for girls. Fruit was more likely to be consumed for snacks than for meals, and vegetables were consumed in about the same frequency at lunch and supper and for snacks. We analyzed the total fat, saturated fat, and sodium content of the most frequently consumed foods. Seventeen of the top 25 foods for the total day and 13-16 for each meal or snack exceeded by at least 50% the recommended levels for fat, saturated fat, or sodium. The pattern of consumption was one of frequent consumption of a relatively small number of foods, many of which are high in fat or sodium.     

Snack consumption and waste by preschool children served "cute" versus regular snacks

OBJECTIVE: To determine if preschool children would eat and waste different amounts of food when served snacks in a regular versus a "cute" form. DESIGN: Preschool children were served 6 snacks in a cute form and the same snacks in a regular form using the same food components during 24 snack sessions. Children served as their own controls. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Thirty-nine children ages 36 to 60 months (20 girls, 19 boys) in a university child development laboratory. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Snack portions eaten and wasted and time for eating. ANALYSIS: Data were analyzed using a 2 3 6 factorial analysis of variance, with snack form (cute or regular) and snack components as the 2 factors. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in children's snack consumption or waste between cute and regular versions of snacks. It took children an average of 2 minutes longer to eat the cute snacks. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: There is no apparent advantage to serving cute snacks in terms of increased consumption or decreased waste. Further research should be conducted on children's mealtime behaviors when served cute foods to learn more about children's responses to the overall appearance of their food.     

Patterns of food selection during meals in women with bulimia

Eating behavior of women with bulimia was compared with that of control subjects who had no eating disorders. Both groups were presented with two buffet-style multiple-item meals. In one meal subjects were instructed to eat normally and in the other they were instructed to eat as much as they could. The eating patterns of patients differed from control subjects in the quantity of food selected and in the rate of eating. During the binge meal, patients spent more of their meal time eating dessert and snacks than did control subjects and began their dessert and snack consumption earlier than control subjects. Patients distributed their meat consumption more evenly across the meal, whereas control subjects ate meat predominantly early in the meals. Most patients consumed either more or less than control subjects when not binge eating, indicating that the eating disturbances in bulimic patients are not confined to episodes of binge eating.     

Meals, snacks and food choices in Brazilian shift workers with high energy expenditure

Objective To describe the food intake of garbage collectors, who works in three shifts, in terms of meal and snack frequency, content, time distribution and the contribution of various popular foods to the total diet. Methods Sixty‐six Brazilian garbage collectors, who work in morning, afternoon, and night shift, participated in the present study. The quantitative methods used were a combination of one 24‐h recall and two 24‐h records during three nonconsecutive work days. The qualitative method used was the food‐based classification of eating episodes model modified in order to define meals or snacks in three categories of events: meals with three food groups of high nutrient density (three HND meals), meals with two food groups of high nutrient density (two HND meals) and snacks, composed of only one food category of high nutrient density. Results The total number of eating events per day was significantly higher for night shift workers. Over 24‐h, ‘two HND meals’ were the most common events and contributed the most energy, in all three shifts. Night shift workers ate more at dawn and less in the morning than other shifts. In all three shifts, meat was the most important food contributing to energy intake. Conclusion Different work schedules did not affect the relative frequency of meal types and snacks or their contribution to daily energy intake, but affected the daily distribution of eating events, with a redistribution of intake from day to night in night shift workers.     

Postprandial glucose and insulin responses to various snacks of equivalent carbohydrate content in normal subjects

To evaluate glucose and insulin responses after ingestion of snacks, we gave healthy, nondiabetic male subjects carbohydrate equivalent (25 g) snacks or isocaloric (265 kcal) snack meals in a random crossover design. Individual snacks composed of either a milk chocolate bar, granola bar, chocolate milk, peanut butter cups, yogurt, or potato chips produced similar glucose response curves. Plasma glucose concentrations were lower (p less than or equal to 0.05) at 30 and 60 min postprandially than after a corresponding oral glucose challenge. In contrast, insulin responses to the snacks exhibited a two-fold variation in peak values. Isocaloric snack meals of cereal-milk, cheese sandwich-milk, and peanut butter sandwich-chocolate milk produced glucose and insulin responses similar to individual snacks. Although glucose concentrations at 60 min fell somewhat below baseline values after each snack, clinical hypoglycemia was not evident. These data clearly indicate a similarity in glycemic response among normal individuals consuming a variety of common snacks.     

Losing weight without dieting. Use of commercial foods as meal replacements for lunch produces an extended energy deficit

High-protein liquid meal replacements have proven to be effective in reducing caloric intake and body weight. Recently, substituting high fiber breakfast cereals for the more expensive high-protein drinks has been found to be equally effective to reduce weight. The following study tested the hypothesis that the mechanism responsible for the reduced intake was not the dietary composition of the meal replacement, but the controlled portion sized meals. Seventeen volunteers ate all of their meals and snacks from foods provided by the research unit from Monday to Friday for five consecutive weeks. For the first week, all participants selected their food from a buffet where each food was weighed before and after eating. For the next two weeks, half of the group selected their lunch by choosing one food from a selection of six commercially available portion controlled foods. They could eat as much as they wished at other meals or snacks. For final weeks four and five, the conditions were reversed for the two groups. Consuming the portion controlled lunches resulted in about a 250 kcal reduction in energy intake. More importantly, no sign of caloric compensation was evident across the 10 days of testing, an observation substantiated by a significant loss of body weight. The results suggest that the mere substitution of one smaller portioned meal each day is sufficient to cause reduction in daily energy intake and a significant amount of weight.     

The impact of the addition of toppings/fillings on the glycaemic response to commonly consumed carbohydrate foods

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the influence of the addition of various toppings/fillings on the glycaemic response to baked potato, pasta and toast. DESIGN: Randomised, repeated measures design. SETTING: Oxford, UK. SUBJECTS: Forty normal, healthy subjects (11 males and 29 females) were recruited to the study. Subjects were staff and students from Oxford Brookes University. INTERVENTION: Cheddar cheese, chilli con carne, baked beans and tuna were added to baked potatoes, cooked pasta and toast to determine the effect on glycaemic response. RESULTS: No significant difference was found among the various toppings and baked potato (P=0.06), pasta (P=0.06) and toast (P=0.39). However, the addition of toppings to a carbohydrate-rich food had a consistent lowering effect on glycaemic index (GI). In particular, the addition of cheddar cheese to potato, pasta and toast reduced the GI of the test meal to a value that is considered to be low-GI (39, 27 and 35, respectively). This is particularly notable for potatoes, which, when eaten alone, had the highest GI value of all the staples. CONCLUSIONS: This study has shown that the addition of foodstuffs to the staples baked potato, pasta and toast had a consistent lowering effect on the GI value of that meal. These findings emphasise the importance of investigating the GI of composite meals.     

The relationship between snack intake and its availability of 4th-6th graders in Taiwan

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the snack intake and snack availability of elementary school children. Data analyzed were from 722 4th to 6th graders' food availability and food intake questionnaires collected in the Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan Elementary School Children 2001-2002. The snacks commonly eaten were divided into two groups. Healthy snacks included dairy products, 100% fruit juice and fresh fruits. Unhealthy snacks included high fat/sugar snacks, cookies, candy, carbonated/sugared beverages and fast food. Structural equating modeling was used to test the models that describe the availability and intake of two snack groups. Results indicated that parents' intake and children's preference were major predictors of children intake of both healthy and unhealthy snacks. Other than that, the intake of unhealthy snacks was positively associated with "purchase by children themselves" but not the intake of healthy snacks, which was influenced predominantly by "present in home". The results support the perception that a positive family food environment is important for improving children's diet quality. To build a healthy family food environment, parents have to not only provide healthy snacks but also limit the unhealthy snacks in home. In addition to that, the role modeling of parents as eating healthy snacks instead of unhealthy snacks themselves may help children to develop similar behaviors.     

Sodium intake from meals and snacks consumed by college students

This investigation was designed to compute the total sodium intake from meals and snacks consumed by selected college students. Most students used carbonated beverages, candies, gums, cookies, and salted snack items. They consumed salted snack items mostly as evening snacks. Mean sodium intake was found to be 3,904 mg. for men and 2,628 mg. for women, without taking into consideration the use of table salt. Sodium density per kilocalorie per day was 1.40 and 1.41 for men and women, respectively, suggesting that the differences in intakes were due to women's lower caloric intake. Sodium intake was greater from regular meals than from snack foods. Evening snacks contributed more to the daily sodium intake than morning and afternoon snacks. It can be concluded that sodium intake of college students needs careful assessment. According to the Food and Nutrition Board, the most effective way to maintain intake within the suggested range is to reduce the amount of salt added at table or in cooking and to reduce moderately the selection of obviously salty foods (9). College students need to be made aware of the sodium content of foods they select for lunch, dinner, and evening snacks, as well as the amount of salt they add at the table.     

"You had peas today?": a pilot study comparing a Head Start child-care center's menu with the actual food served

This study explored the types of food served at a Head Start child-care center compared with that center's monthly menus. The study design was direct observation of the food provided by a Head Start center throughout the school day (Monday through Friday; 8:45 am to 2:30 pm) from January 4 to June 20, 2002, and analysis of this center's monthly menus. The numbers of meals directly observed for each type of meal service were: breakfast (n=96), lunch (n=95), and afternoon snack (n=78). These meals were compared with six monthly menus. Of the 269 meals and snacks compared, only three breakfast meals and an "ethnic day" matched the meals described on the provided menu. These findings illustrate that this center's menu was not consistently followed and therefore could not be used as an estimate of the preschoolers' intake or used as an educational or informational tool for parents/caregivers. Future research should verify how common these findings are among other Child and Adult Care Food Program child-care centers. Results may provide direction for development of the US Department of Agriculture's Child and Adult Care Food Program training for foodservice workers and educational materials focusing on menu development, appropriate substitutions, and the importance of using menus as a nutrition education tool.     

The role of parental control practices in explaining children's diet and BMI

This paper aimed to investigate which parents use which types of parenting control practices to manage their children's diets and to assess the impact of these practices on children's dietary patterns and their BMI. A cross-sectional survey of 518 parents with children aged 4-7 years was carried out in 18 primary schools across the South of England. Measures included aspects of parental control practices and the child's diet. Results showed that older parents with a lower BMI and who were stay at home parents used more "snack overt control", "snack covert control" and "meal covert control" and those with more education used more covert control strategies. In contrast, male, non-white parents with younger children used more "pressure to eat". In terms of the children's diet, the results showed links between parental and child demographics and aspects of unhealthy and healthy food intake. In addition, links were also found for parental control practices. For example, eating more unhealthy snacks was related to less covert control and more pressure to eat, eating fruit and vegetables was related to higher levels of both overt and covert control over meals and less pressure to eat and being neophobic was related to less covert control over meals and more pressure to eat. The children's BMIs were unrelated to any variables measured in the study.     

Storing Empty Calories and Chronic Disease Risk: Snack-Food Products,Nutritive Content,and Manufacturers in Philadelphia Corner Stores

Corner stores are part of the urban food environment that may contribute to obesity and diet-related diseases, particularly for low-income and minority children. The snack foods available in corner stores may be a particularly important aspect of an urban child’s food environment. Unfortunately, there is little data on exactly what snack foods corner stores stock, or where these foods come from. We evaluated snack foods in 17 Philadelphia corner stores, located in three ethnically distinct, low-income school neighborhoods. We recorded the manufacturer, calories, fat, sugar, and sodium for all snack items, excluding candy and prepared foods. We then compared the nutritive content of assessed snack items to established dietary recommendations and a school nutrition standard. In total, stores stocked 452 kinds of snacks, with only 15% of items common between all three neighborhoods. Total and unique snacks and snack food manufacturers varied by neighborhood, but distributions in snack type varied negligibly: overall, there were no fruit snacks, no vegetable snacks, and only 3.6% of all snacks (by liberal definition) were whole grain. The remainder (96.4% of snacks) was highly processed foods. Five of 65 manufacturers supplied 73.4% of all kinds of snack foods. Depending on serving size definition, 80.0-91.5% of snack foods were “unhealthy” (by the school nutrition standard), including seven of 11 wholegrain products. A single snack item could supply 6-14% of a day’s recommended calories, fat, sugar, and sodium on average (or 56-169% at the extreme) for a “typical” child. We conclude that corner store snack food inventories are almost entirely unhealthful, and we discuss possible implications and next steps for research and intervention.     

OUR BODIES ARE MADE OF PIZZA--FOOD AND EMBODIMENT AMONG CHILDREN IN KENTUCKY

The aims of this qualitative article are to describe children's food-related practices and meanings and to explore how food-related practices embody meanings of food, age, and gender in children's everyday lives. Relationships between practices and meanings are examined from an embodiment perspective. The data were collected from one class of fourth-grade children (N = 24) in central Kentucky by a mix of ethnographic research methods. The participating children's food-related practices and meanings reflected a categorization into healthy and "junk" food, likes and dislikes, meals and snacks, children and adults, and masculine and feminine. The children's food discourse focused on preferences and they based their eating on a three meal pattern. Both the girls and boys strongly identified with "junk" food and were not interested in eating in a healthy manner. Results suggest that the children used foods to differentiate adults from children, but they had not completely embodied gendered food meanings.     

The Impact of 1 Year of Healthier School Food Policies on Students’ Diets During and Outside of the School Day

Background

In 2012, Massachusetts implemented both the updated national school meal standards and comprehensive competitive food/beverage standards that closely align with current national requirements for school snacks.