Risks of meat: the relative impact of cognitive, affective and moral concerns

The purpose of the present research was, first, to examine the impact of particular perspectives (Study 1: cognitive and affective; Study 2: moral) on the perception and acceptance of risks associated with meat consumption, and intention to reduce meat consumption in the future. The first study showed that an affective focus generally had a stronger impact on risk perception and acceptance, and intention to reduce meat consumption, than a more cognitive focus. Moreover, moral considerations had a clear impact in all conditions. Results of a second study confirmed that a moral focus has powerful effects on all the dependent variables. The second purpose of the research was to examine the perseverance of the impact of cognitive, affective and moral perspectives. In both studies, a follow-up after three weeks showed increased perception of moral risks and a strong intention to reduce future meat consumption. Moreover, attitude towards meat consumption became less positive in the conditions with an affective and moral focus. There were also significant relations between intention to reduce meat consumption, actual reduction, and intention to adhere to this level in the future. Overall, risk acceptance was mediated by perceived health and moral risks, whereas intention about meat consumption was mediated by risk acceptance.     

Attitudes towards following meat, vegetarian and vegan diets: an examination of the role of ambivalence

Vegetarianism within the U.K. is growing in popularity, with the current estimate of 7% of the population eating a vegetarian diet. This study examined differences between the attitudes and beliefs of four dietary groups (meat eaters, meat avoiders, vegetarians and vegans) and the extent to which attitudes influenced intentions to follow each diet. In addition, the role of attitudinal ambivalence as a moderator variable was examined. Completed questionnaires were obtained from 111 respondents (25 meat eaters, 26 meat avoiders, 34 vegetarians, 26 vegans). In general, predictions were supported, in that respondents displayed most positive attitudes and beliefs towards their own diets, and most negative attitudes and beliefs towards the diet most different form their own. Regression analyses showed that, as predicted by the Theory of Planned Behaviour, attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control were significant predictors of intention to follow each diet (apart from the vegetarian diet, where subjective norm was non-significant). In each case, attitudinal ambivalence was found to moderate the attitude-intention relationship, such that attitudes were found to be stronger predictors at lower levels of ambivalence. The results not only highlight the extent to which such alternative diets are an interesting focus for psychological research, but also lend further support to the argument that ambivalence in an important influence on attitude strength.     

The role of attitude and attitude ambivalence in acceptance of the cancer risk associated with red meat

Many cancers are linked to varying degrees with common lifestyle factors such as smoking, drinking and diet, and are therefore partially preventable. Building on existing risk perception literature, this article uses the case of red meat consumption to examine the effect of people’s attitudes and attitude ambivalence on health risk perceptions where there is some uncertainty about the risk. Data was obtained from an opportunity sample of community-dwelling adults (n = 167) using an online survey. The survey included information from a recent press release on the cancer risk associated with red meat consumption (‘probably carcinogenic’) as well as measures of attitude to red meat, attitude ambivalence, ambiguity aversion, information evaluation and acceptance of cancer risk. Participants who were more inclined to accept the risk of cancer linked to red meat tended to have a more negative attitude to red meat, higher attitude ambivalence, more favourable evaluation of the information provided, lower ambiguity aversion and lower red meat consumption; they also tended to be of older age. Attitude was a weaker predictor of risk perception among participants who were highly ambivalent. This, coupled with the finding that people with an ambivalent attitude to red meat evaluated the risk information more favourably and were more convinced that red meat can cause cancer, suggests that attitude ambivalence may play a more important role in risk perception than previously thought. These findings are discussed in the context of strategies for dealing with risk when drawing on rational and non-rational logics of handling evidence.     

Does regulatory focus play a role in dietary restraint?

Regulatory-Focus Theory [Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.] distinguishes between self-regulation with a promotion focus (focusing on the presence and absence of positive outcomes) and a prevention focus (focusing on the presence and absence of negative outcomes). We examined whether regulatory-focus theory can help us to better understand the weight-related beliefs and dieting behaviors of restrained eaters. In two studies, participants completed measures of dietary restraint, regulatory focus, beliefs about the outcomes associated with weight loss and weight gain, and dieting behaviors. Overall, restrained eaters were more self-regulatory than were unrestrained eaters. Across both studies, dietary restraint was the best predictor of weight-related beliefs and dieting behaviors; in contrast, regulatory focus was largely unrelated to beliefs and behaviors. In addition, restrained eaters were highly motivated to control their weight irrespective of how close or how far they were from their ideal weight, whereas unrestrained eaters were more motivated to control their weight when they were further from their ideal. Our results suggest that future research should focus on the obstacles to successful weight regulation, rather than on individuals' regulatory focus.     

Hedonism as a predictor of attitudes of young French women towards meat

Iron-deficient young women who are at risk of anaemia should be advised to eat red meat, a good food source of iron. However, red meat is known to elicit negative attitudes among young women, which could lead to low meat consumption. Several factors can contribute to meat attitudes. We therefore hypothesised that a good predictor of attitudes towards meat could be a positive affective component, for example, the pleasure of eating meat. In our study, 77 women with a mean age of 30.5 were surveyed. They were first asked about four hedonism variables (overall, eating, red meat and white meat hedonism) and ethical and nutritional concerns. Secondly, they were asked to express their attitudes of like/dislike towards meat by way of meat pictures, odours and taste. Red meat hedonism was first highly correlated with a liking of raw red and white meat pictures (0.41< or =r< or =0.68), followed by a liking of cooked red and white meat pictures (0.27< or =r< or =0.62). To a lesser extent, red meat hedonism was correlated with a liking of meat odours (0.29< or =r< or =0.38) and beef taste (r=0.32). Finally, red meat hedonism was the best predictor for most of the likings for red and white meat images. Thus, red meat images were pleasant for people who already like meat and did not encourage meat consumption among low meat-eating women.     

The relationship between attitudes,demographic factors and perceived consumption of meats and other proteins in relation to the BSE crisis: A regional study in the United Kingdom

This study investigates changes in perceived consumption, beliefs and attitudes about beef and other proteins over three time periods that included much major media coverage of BSE-related issues. Demographic, consumption frequency of meat and other proteins and attitude scales relating to beef and BSE were administered to a sample of 1065 shoppers as they left a supermarket. Significant changes in most of the consumption measures were found over the three time periods. Many sex and age differences were also found. Attitudes correlated positively with both consumption of beef and pork and negatively with consumption of quorn. Explanations for the findings are offered in terms of the theories of reasoned action, cognitive dissonance and attribution and the health belief model. Implications for possible interactions between long-term changes in beef consumption and those due to the BSE crisis are considered in terms of the justification for continuing to eat beef.     

Factors influencing consumption of pork and poultry in the Irish market

Comparisons of Irish consumers' beliefs about pork and poultry in the framework of Fishbein and Ajzen's Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) showed that poultry is viewed as the tastier, healthier and less expensive of the two meats while pork is viewed as the safer meat. The influence of attitudes and important others on intention to consume these meats was explored and the findings support the basic structure of the TRA model. In this study, both attitudes towards poultry and pork consumption and the influence of important others influenced intention to consume pork and poultry, but attitude was of greater importance. For poultry, health, eating enjoyment, safety and price were most important determinants of attitude with environment and animal welfare less so. In the case of pork, health, eating enjoyment, safety and animal welfare were most important determinants of attitude with environment and price less so. Furthermore, doctor's advice influenced the subject norm for both poultry and pork, which in turn influenced intention to consume, while dietician's advice only influenced the subject norm for pork.     

Young men's ambivalence toward alcohol

There is widespread concern about the health and social consequences of excessive alcohol consumption among young men. Interventions to reduce alcohol-related harm will be affected by ambivalence toward alcohol, because ambivalent attitudes are worse predictors of behaviour than are homogeneous attitudes. It is therefore important to identify aspects of alcohol consumption about which young men are not ambivalent. In-depth interviews were conducted with a socioeconomically diverse sample of 31 men, aged 18-21 living in London, UK. Ambivalence toward alcohol was widespread. None of the drinkers who were interviewed had uncomplicated positive evaluations of drinking: all mentioned compelling reasons not to drink. Most motives for drinking were also identified as reasons for not drinking if consumption became excessive. However, three motives for not drinking were not also motives for drinking: violence, alcoholism, and cost. These findings should be considered during the design of interventions to reduce the health and social consequences of excessive alcohol consumption amongst young men.     

“Baby? Baby Not?”: Exploring Women’s Narratives About Ambivalence Towards an Unintended Pregnancy

Unintended pregnancy among adult women is a significant public health challenge in the United States. Research has identified ambivalence as a risk factor for not using contraceptives. The qualitative study presented here examined women’s narratives about ambivalence toward unintended pregnancy. In-depth interviews were conducted in 2012 with 28 women aged 20–45 years old who were recruited primarily via flyers in family planning clinics in a rural, Midwestern state. The interviews were coded for salient themes. Almost 40 percent of the women said that they had experienced an unintended pregnancy. All but two women expressed ambivalence, stating that they had both good and bad feelings about getting pregnant unintentionally. Women expressed if a pregnancy did occur, they would just have to step up and “deal with it.” They recognized a baby was something special but not without negative aspects. Those who were less ambivalent (and more negative) had compelling reasons why, but even those women expressed some positive feelings. At times, ambivalence was expressed by negative reactions about having a child that coincided with believing that becoming a parent or having another child would have a positive impact on themselves. This study provides an examination of women’s narratives about ambivalence toward pregnancy. Overall, women’s narratives constructed ambivalence as arising from both positive and negative emotions, as well as beliefs about costs and benefits, associated with unintended pregnancy. Given its association with a lack of contraceptive use, understanding the components of ambivalence (e.g., feelings, beliefs) is important to bolstering interventions aimed toward decreasing ambivalence and increasing contraceptive use.     

Beliefs about the determinants of body weight predict dieting and exercise behavior

This study examined the relation between beliefs about the determinants of body weight and self-reported weight-control behaviors. Restrained eaters and unrestrained eaters indicated their beliefs about amount of food eaten and amount of exercise as determinants of body weight. They also reported the extent to which they engaged in several dieting behaviors and exercise. For restrained eaters (but not for unrestrained eaters), there was a positive correlation between beliefs about amount of food eaten as a determinant of body weight and self-reported dieting behaviors. For both restrained and unrestrained eaters, there was a positive correlation between beliefs about exercise as a determinant of body weight and amount of weekly exercise. These results suggest that (a) specific beliefs about the determinants of body weight can be useful predictors of weight-related behaviors, and (b) restrained eaters are likely to engage in a broader range of behaviors aimed at controlling their weight.     

Application of Fishbein and Ajzen's expectancy-value model to understanding fat intake.

A questionnaire on attitudes towards the consumption of food types (specified by verbal labels) which contribute highly to fat in the diet was completed by 240 subjects who were quota sampled for sex, age and social class. The person's attitude toward consumption was found to be a good predictor of reported consumption. Differences in responses were found between groups of subjects who were classified by sex, age and social class. In general, females, the lower age groups and the higher social class subjects were found to have lower consumption and more negative attitudes towards the food types included. Individual belief-evaluation products on taste and healthiness of the foods were more closely related to attitudes towards consumption than were other beliefs (e.g. on convenience and price).     

Do adolescents want to avoid pregnancy? Attitudes toward pregnancy as predictors of pregnancy.

PURPOSE: To document the extent to which adolescents feel ambivalent towards getting pregnant and to examine the relationship between pregnancy attitudes and the occurrence of a pregnancy one year later. Demographic correlates of pregnancy attitudes also were examined. METHODS: This was a prospective study using a subsample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) data base. The sample was 4869 adolescent females in grades 9 through 11 who completed two interviews at a one year interval. Logistic regression analyses were used to predict occurrence of a pregnancy at wave 2 from attitudes toward pregnancy at wave 1. RESULTS: A substantial number of adolescent females (15%-30%) reported some degree of ambivalence toward becoming pregnant relative to their peers. Adolescent females' attitudes towards pregnancy were predictive of the occurrence of a pregnancy one year later. Additionally, demographic correlates of the pregnancy attitude were identified, including differences due to ethnicity, age, relationship status, mother's education level, and whether the adolescent came from a one or a two parent home. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that a significant minority of adolescents have some ambivalence toward pregnancy relative to their peers and that these attitudes are predictive of the occurrence of pregnancy.     

Unpacking atitudes towards genetically modified food

The present study investigates the structure of attitudes towards genetically modified (GM) food. A total of 431 respondents completed a questionnaire measuring their overall attitude, cognition and affect towards GM food. A model with distinct positive and negative, affective and cognitive components and a separate factor for perceived risk and worry best accounted for the data. Negative - but not positive - components directly affected behavioural intentions. Implications of these findings for our understanding of attitudes towards GM food and their impact on behaviour are discussed.     

北京、广州、上海城市居民营养知识、态度、行为的调查

对北京、广州和上海三大城市随机抽取的９６５名年龄在２０～５０岁的城市居民进行有关营养知识、态度和行为（Ｋ－Ａ－Ｐ）的调查。结果显示，三地区调查对象的营养知识水平不高。营养知识的得分与其自身受教育程度有相关性（ｒ＝０．３０１１，Ｐ＜０．０１）。年龄在３５岁以上的对象，营养知识的得分高于年轻人；三地区调查对象对营养知识的获取，合理的膳食模式，卫生的饮食习惯均持有积极、肯定的态度。食物消费频度调查结果表明，米／面、肉／禽、蔬菜、水果、奶及奶制品的消费量较高。此外，８９．５％，７８．８％和４７．８％的调查对象分别选择报纸、电视、广播作为其主要营养信息来源。本次调查为将来的营养宣教的内容和方法提供依据。     

A theoretical analysis showed that blinding cannot eliminate potential for bias associated with beliefs about allocation in randomized clinical trials

ObjectivesTo explore the theoretical justification for blinding in randomized trials and make recommendations concerning the implementation and interpretation of blinded randomized trials.Study Design and SettingA theoretical analysis was conducted of the potential for bias in randomized trials with successful blinding (ie, trials in which beliefs about allocation to treatment or control groups are independent of actual allocation). The analysis identified conditions that must be satisfied to ensure that blinding eliminates the potential for bias associated with beliefs about allocation.ResultsEven when beliefs about allocation are independent of actual allocation, they can still cause bias. The potential for bias is eliminated when the belief is uniformly one of complete ambivalence about allocation.ConclusionEven when blinding succeeds in making beliefs about allocation independent of actual allocation, beliefs about allocation may still cause bias. It is difficult to determine the extent of bias in any particular trial. Bias could be eliminated by establishing a state of complete ambivalence about the allocation of every trial participant, but universal ambivalence may be difficult to achieve and may reduce the generalizability of the trial's findings.     

Health communication and consumer behavior on meat in Belgium: from BSE until dioxin

This article focuses on the impact of mass media meat-health information on consumer perception, attitude, and behavior toward fresh meat in Belgium. In a situation similar to that which occurred in most other European countries, Belgian fresh meat consumption fell considerably during 1995-1999. A multitude of messages linking meat consumption to human health risks were reported by mass media. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) since 1996 and dioxin in 1999 constituted the major issues. Empirical research, conducted in April 1998, revealed the tremendous negative impact of mass media coverage of meat-health issues on consumer risk perception, health concern, and attitude and behavior toward fresh meat. Oppositely, personal communication through butchers had only a small effect on consumer decision-making in this era dominated by alarming meat-health press. Implications are threefold. First, mass media should be aware of its social responsibilities, which include spreading reliable and correct information to the society. This is especially the case as human health risks are involved. Second, the meat industry urgently needs to reorient itself toward quality, safety, and transparency. Finally, future communication dealing with similar crises situations requires cooperation across the meat chain, government, and those who are responsible for public health promotion and communication.     

Emergency appendicectomy and meat consumption in the UK.

STUDY OBJECTIVE--To compare the rates of reported emergency appendicectomies in a cohort study of vegetarians and non-vegetarians by participants' history of meat consumption. DESIGN--This was a prospective cohort study in which participants were asked about their lifetime history of meat consumption/avoidance and, separately, whether they had had an appendicectomy. Appendicectomy was described as either "emergency" or "non-emergency" according to details supplied by the participant. SETTING--The United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS--These comprised more than 11000 people, of whom 4852 (44%) completed both an appendicectomy form and a dietary questionnaire giving details of their lifetime history of meat consumption. MAIN RESULTS--The percentage who reported an emergency appendicectomy was higher among lifelong meat eaters (10.7%) than either lifelong non-meat eaters (7.8%) or those who had stopped eating meat (8.0%); and the operations were performed at an earlier age in this first group (mean values 18.9, 26.0, and 19.6 years respectively). The overall age adjusted emergency participants who did not eat mean with those who ate meat was 0.47 (95% confidence interval 0.35, 0.65). CONCLUSION--The results suggests that people who do not eat meat have a 50% lower risk of requiring an emergency appendicectomy than those who do. The data do not, however, allow the reliable testing of other hypotheses, so meat consumption may simply be a marker for another dietary, lifestyle, or socioeconomic factor.     

The effect of images of thin and overweight body shapes on women's ambivalence towards chocolate

Many women experience ambivalent orientations towards chocolate, both craving for it and having concerns about eating it. The present study investigated the effect of viewing thin and overweight images of models in chocolate advertisements on ambivalent attitudes. Participants were 84 females, aged 17-63, allocated to a thin model condition, an overweight model condition, or a control group. As predicted, following exposure to their respective images, participants in the thin condition had increased avoidance, approach and guilt scores, while participants in the overweight condition had decreased approach and guilt scores, with no change in avoidance. Control participants demonstrated ambivalence, but no changes over time. The findings show that common advertising strategies for chocolate are likely to exacerbate ambivalence in female consumers.     

Attitudes and beliefs related to childhood vaccinations among parents of 6 years old children in Zagreb,Croatia

The Croatian Immunization Programme is a mandatory prevention programme in which vaccines are offered free of charge and little is known about parental vaccine-related beliefs and attitudes. We aimed to describe beliefs and attitudes towards childhood vaccination of parents in Zagreb, estimate the proportion of parents with positive attitudes towards vaccination, and to identify the possible predictors of positive attitudes. Using a self-administered questionnaire, we performed a cluster sampling survey among parents of 6-years-old children in Zagreb. In total 542 questionnaires were collected, 80% (n = 430/542) of respondents were mothers. Even though 72.6% (n = 385/531; 95%CI: 69–76) respondents feel that childhood vaccination should remain mandatory, 36.3% (n = 192/528; 95%CI: 58.3–65.3) considered that simultaneous administration of vaccines can have negative effect to their child’s health. In addition, 38% (n = 202/532; 95%CI: 33.2–43.1%) feared that vaccines may harm their child. Of total, parents mostly reported positive attitude towards vaccination (61.8%; 95% CI: 34.7–42). Parents with positive attitudes were more likely to state their child experienced mild or no adverse reaction after vaccination, report not delaying vaccination and provide additional non-mandatory vaccines to their child (p < 0.05). Gender, age, education and marital status of parent were not significantly associated with the positive attitude towards vaccination. Our results suggest the need for educational interventions and communication strategies that could foster better knowledge on immunization with a focus on parental misconceptions, perceived constraints and safety issues about vaccine.