2015 — 2016年中国五城市哺乳期妇女膳食状况

  目的  了解并分析中国3个城市乳母孕期及产后6月营养素补充剂的使用情况并探究其影响因素。  方法  在2017年12月 — 2018年12月间,于北京市、许昌市、苏州市妇幼保健院/社区卫生服务中心纳入产后1～5 d乳母256人,至产后6个月有207人参加了产后随访,对其孕期及产后6个月的营养素补充剂使用情况进行描述性分析,运用logistic回归分析相关影响因素。  结果  妇女孕期营养补充剂总使用率为82.03 %,主要服用的营养补充剂依次为钙（61.33 %）、叶酸（59.38 %）、维生素（46.48 %）、铁（20.31 %）和锌（8.20 %）;不同地区妇女孕期营养补充剂使用率比较,差异有统计学意义（P < 0.05）。哺乳期（产后6个月时）的营养补充剂总使用率为47.83 %,其中钙使用率达43.00 %,其余均 < 10.0 %。不同年龄段、地区及教育程度的妇女孕期营养补充剂使用率比较,差异有统计学意义（P < 0.05）。  结论  妇女孕期钙类补充剂及叶酸补充率较高;哺乳期铁、锌补充率低。营养素补充剂的使用应结合妇女的所在地区、孕前体质指数（BMI）、教育背景、月收入、职业等因素,对不同人群进行有重点的营养宣教。     

广州地区孕中晚期、哺乳期妇女膳食调查分析

目的了解广州市孕妇、乳母营养素摄入情况。方法选取孕妇146名,在孕22±2周、孕38±2周、产后12±2周分3次进行3天24小时回顾法膳食调查。结果孕中、晚期、哺乳期妇女食物结构比较合理,但与《中国居民膳食指南》相比,乳制品、豆类摄取均较低,前者仅占3.3%、3.8%和2.4%,后者占0.9%、0.8%和1.1%。营养素分析结果:3期钙摄入均不足,仅达到AI的76.8%、68.1%和65.5%。锌摄入分别为RNI的89.0%、81.9%和80.4%,哺乳期能量占RNI的95.1%,其余各期能量各营养素均达到AI或RNI标准。结论广州市孕妇、乳母应适当调整膳食结构,增加海产品或含锌多的硬果类食物摄入,以保证锌的摄入。增加奶类、豆类的摄入量,并适当补充钙制剂,保证钙的摄入充足。     

包头市343例孕妇孕中、晚期膳食营养状况调查

目的 了解包头市孕妇孕中、晚期饮食习惯及营养素的摄入情况,为有针对性的指导孕妇合理膳食及进一步研究孕妇营养与健康问题提供科学依据.方法 采用半定量食物频率法,对调查对象进行膳食调查.结果 调查对象的膳食构成以谷薯类食物为主,蔬菜、奶类和鱼、禽、蛋、肉类摄入不足;孕妇膳食总能量达推荐摄入量标准(RNI)的111％,三大产热营养素的热能供给比例基本适宜,其中蛋白质摄入量达到RNI的113％,钙、铁、锌摄入缺乏,维生素B2摄入不足,维生素A、B1、C的摄入量均达到RNI的80％;孕妇在怀孕期补充过钙制剂和叶酸的比例分别为55.3％和65.2％,但对锌、铁制剂补充的人数较少.结论 包头市孕妇孕中、晚期膳食中营养素摄入尚不均衡,存在一定程度的营养缺乏现象,应加强有针对性的营养指导,尤其应适当降低动物性食物的摄入量.     

妊娠期营养素补充剂的使用对妊娠期妇女贫血状况影响的队列研究

目的  探讨中国妊娠期妇女营养素补充剂的使用情况和妊娠合并贫血的关系。 方法  采用自行设计的妊娠期营养素补充剂使用情况调查问卷,对“中国孕产妇队列研究·协和”项目中的孕妇进行调查,随访收集研究对象营养素补充剂的使用情况和妊娠合并贫血的诊断情况,采用Logistic线性回归分析模型对数据进行关联性分析。 结果  共纳入研究对象3 321例。妊娠合并贫血的发生率为14.0%。Logistic线性回归分析模型结果显示,与全妊娠期使用叶酸的孕妇相比,未坚持全妊娠期使用叶酸的孕妇,更容易发生贫血(OR=1.362,95% CI：1.096~1.691, P=0.005)。 结论  未坚持全妊娠期使用叶酸是妊娠合并贫血的危险因素,应鼓励孕妇在全妊娠期持续地使用叶酸以降低贫血的发生风险。     

乌鲁木齐市213名汉族孕妇膳食营养状况调查

目的：了解乌鲁木齐市汉族孕妇膳食营养摄入及各种营养素达标情况,以便改善和提高孕妇的营养状况。方法随机选择自治区妇幼保健院营养门诊就诊的213名汉族孕妇作为调查对象,采用问卷方式24小时膳食回顾法对每个调查对象进行膳食调查,建立数据库,与《中国居民膳食营养素参考摄入量（ DRIs）》进行比较分析。结果孕妇膳食结构不合理,虽然孕期蔬菜与水果类摄入量已达到中国营养学会推荐摄入量,但其他种类食物却低于推荐摄入量。孕早期能量摄入2086．70kcal,孕中期3200．40kcal,孕晚期3650．70kcal,分别占RNI的90．70％、128．00％和130．40％;孕早期蛋白质摄入61．60kcal,孕中期71．70kcal,孕晚期71．30kcal,分别占RNI的82．10％、89．60％和83．90％,而且植物性蛋白质摄入过多,动物性蛋白摄入量低于全国30％的平均水平;孕妇膳食中钙、铁主要来源是植物性食物,分别占65％和90％,但在植物性食物中钙、铁的吸收率很低;维生素C、维生素B 6以及叶酸摄入不足,其中叶酸摄入量严重缺乏,孕早期叶酸摄入68．50μg,孕中期84．90μg,孕晚期93．20μg,分别占RNI的11．40％、14．20％和15．50％。结论孕妇各期膳食结构不合理;孕早期热能及营养素不能满足机体需要,孕中、晚期膳食较为合理,但维生素B6、维生素C、叶酸的摄入水平严重不足;动物性蛋白、钙、铁摄入不足。     

中国不同孕期妇女营养素补充剂的使用情况和地区差异性分析

目的了解中国妊娠期妇女在孕早期、孕中期和孕晚期营养素补充剂的使用现状和地区差异,为指导孕妇合理使用营养素补充剂提供参考依据。方法本研究数据来自中国孕产妇队列研究·协和项目,纳入15个省(自治区、直辖市)的24家医院进行首次孕检的孕早期孕妇9 189名,并在孕中期随访到5 588名孕妇,孕晚期随访到4 305名孕妇。采用问卷调查随访收集孕妇的基本信息和孕早期、孕中期、孕晚期营养素补充剂的使用情况。采用SPSS 22.0软件进行χ~2检验和多因素非条件logistic回归分析。结果孕早期使用率最高的营养素补充剂是叶酸,使用率为89.1%,孕中、晚期使用率最高的是钙剂,使用率分别为78.1%和87.7%。除叶酸外,复合维生素、维生素D、钙、铁、DHA、膳食纤维、益生菌在孕中期和孕晚期的使用率均高于孕早期。多因素logistic回归分析结果显示,南方地区复合维生素和益生菌的使用率在孕早期、孕中期、孕晚期均低于北方地区(P0.05);孕早期叶酸的使用率南方高于北方,孕中、晚期叶酸的使用率南方低于北方(P0.05);在孕中、晚期,中部地区维生素D、钙、铁补充剂的使用率均低于东部地区,西部地区铁补充剂的使用率也低于东部地区(P0.05);孕中、晚期西部地区孕妇DHA的使用率均高于东部地区,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论本研究中孕妇的营养素补充剂使用率较高,但是不同地区的营养素使用率存在较大差异,应结合孕妇的营养需求和膳食营养素摄入情况,有针对性地进行健康教育,帮助孕妇合理地使用营养素补充剂。     

萧山区425例孕妇膳食调查

目的:了解孕妇膳食状况,有针对性地对孕妇进行营养指导,改变不良饮食习惯,保证孕妇合理营养,以利于母体和胎儿的健康。方法:以浙江省萧山区425例孕妇为调查对象,对孕早期、孕中期、孕晚期的膳食摄入情况进行分析,了解不同孕期妇女蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物的热能和钙、铁、锌、B族维生素等营养素的摄入情况。结果:孕妇膳食产热营养素的热能供给比例基本合理,但钙、铁、锌及维生素B1、维生素B2的摄入量较低,低于或接近参考摄入量(RNI)的50%。结论:孕妇的膳食结构比较合理,但要增加钙、铁、锌及B族维生素的摄入,特别要增加孕早期的蛋白质和热量的摄入,孕中晚期适当增加优质蛋白质及钙的摄入量,并且要重视叶酸的补充。     

哈尔滨市孕妇孕期膳食摄入调查及评价

目的调查孕妇孕能量及膳食营养素摄入情况,找出存在的营养缺陷与问题。方法调查孕妇孕能量及膳食营养素摄入情况,分析营养缺陷与问题。结果哈尔滨市孕妇能量摄入是合理的,但蛋白质和脂肪供能比例偏高,碳水化合物供能比例偏低;维生素A与核黄素摄入量为边缘不足,硫胺素摄入不足,与中国居民营养素参考摄入量（RNI）比较维生素A差异无统计学意义,后两者差异极有统计学意义（P值均〈0.01）;膳食纤维摄入量低于推荐的摄入范围;维生素B6和叶酸摄入不足,与适宜摄入量或RNI相比较差异均有统计学意义（P值均〈0.001）;钙、铁与锌的摄入不能满足随着孕龄增加而需要量的增加;其他营养素摄入都是充足的。结论哈尔滨市孕妇在孕早、中与晚期的膳食摄入均有一定缺陷,应对孕妇开展经常性的营养与健康教育。     

上海市孕妇营养素补充剂摄入情况分析

目的了解和掌握目前上海市孕妇营养素补充剂的摄入情况及其影响因素。方法在市区和郊区各选择一个年接生数相近的医院,按10%的比例随机抽取602例本市孕妇,孕中、晚期各半,进行问卷调查。结果孕妇营养素补充剂摄入率达到了90.70%,平均每月花费(224.83±155.79)元。规律性补充比例较高的营养素有钙(75.58%)、叶酸(71.12%)、锌(65.28%)、维生素C(66.78%)、维生素B1(61.23%)和维生素B2(60.13%)。硒、碘、磷、铜、烟酸等补充率在15.00%以下。维生素A、维生素E、维生素C、维生素B1、维生素B2、维生素B6、维生素B12的平均摄入量超过了RNI或AI。有67.22%的孕妇认为"在随访时医生推荐",是自己摄入营养素补充剂的原因。结论上海市孕妇摄入营养素补充剂较普遍,摄入品种具有一定的合理性,但有些营养素补充量过大。在是否补充营养素问题上,主要依靠医生的推荐,没有可靠的依据,以及一些商业因素的干扰,是影响孕妇合理服用营养素补充剂的主要因素。     

2017年成都某医院孕妇钙摄入水平及来源

目的 调查评价成都地区各孕期孕妇钙摄入水平及来源。方法 利用成都孕妇队列数据，以成都市2017年某三甲妇幼医疗机构产前门诊孕8～14周健康单胎孕妇为研究对象，通过问卷调查收集孕妇基本信息及各孕期近1个月内钙补充剂使用情况，采用3天24小时膳食回顾法收集孕妇各孕期膳食信息，依据《中国食物成分表(2018)》计算膳食钙摄入量和不同食物钙贡献率，将膳食钙和补充剂钙摄入量累加获得总钙摄入量。参照《中国居民膳食营养素参考摄入量(2013)》评价钙摄入。结果 最终纳入有效样本孕早期1653例，孕中期1024例，孕晚期1017例。孕早、中、晚期总钙摄入量中位数分别为523.3、1280.5和1491.3 mg/d;总钙摄入量充足率分别为16.3%、63.2%和67.1%,总钙不足率分别为69.0%、15.7%和11.2%,总钙过量率分别为0.2%、9.1%和14.4%。孕早、中、晚期膳食钙摄入量中位数分别为453.0、613.0和723.0 mg/d;膳食钙充足率分别为7.1%、9.7%和16.2%,膳食钙不足率分别为82.0%、75.0%和62.6%。各孕期膳食钙主要来源均为奶类、蔬菜类、谷薯类，...     

Comparing nutrient intake from food to the estimated average requirements shows middle- to upper-income pregnant women lack iron and possibly magnesium

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether nutrient intake from food alone was adequate across trimesters for middle- to upper-income pregnant women when compared with estimated average requirements (EAR), and to determine whether food intake exceeded the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for any nutrient. DESIGN: Observational study in which pregnant women completed 3-day diet records each month during their pregnancy. Records were analyzed for nutrient content, and usual intake distributions were determined. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Subjects were low-risk women in their first trimester of pregnancy (living in middle- to upper-income households). Ninety-four women were recruited, and sixty-three participated. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PERFORMED: Nutrient intake data were adjusted to achieve normality by using a power transformation. A mixed model method was used to assess trends in intake over time, and to estimate mean intake and within-subjects and between-subjects variance. The usual intake distribution for each nutrient was determined and compared with the EAR and UL. RESULTS: The probabilities of usual nutrient intake from food being less than the EAR were highest for iron (.91), magnesium (.53), zinc (.31), vitamin B6 (.21), selenium (.20), and vitamin C (.12). Women were not at risk of exceeding the UL from food intake for any nutrient studied. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Study participants did not consume adequate amounts of iron from food to meet the needs of pregnancy, and therefore iron supplementation is warranted in this population. Intake of magnesium was suboptimal using the EAR as a cut-point for adequacy.     

Socioeconomic Inequalities Impact the Ability of Pregnant Women and Women of Childbearing Age to Consume Nutrients Needed for Neurodevelopment: An Analysis of NHANES 2007–2018

Adequate consumption of nutrients that support infant neurodevelopment is critical among pregnant women and women of childbearing age. Understanding the potential effects of socioeconomic inequalities on nutrient gaps in these life stages is thus important for informing strategies to mitigate negative health consequences. Usual intake (foods and dietary supplements) of neurodevelopment-related nutrients was determined from 24 h recalls among women of childbearing age and pregnant women (20–44 years) using data from 2007–2018 NHANES. Usual intake was compared across household food security, poverty-to-income ratio (PIR), and household participation in federal food and nutrition assistance programs. Intake of EPA + DHA was universally low with >95% of all women (pregnant and non-pregnant) below the DGA recommendation from foods alone. Women in households that participated in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program had a significantly lower intake of multiple nutrients relative to those who did not participate. For example, 50% had intakes below the estimated average requirement (EAR) for vitamin A (versus 32%), 42% were below the EAR for calcium (versus 33%) and 65% were below the EAR for magnesium (versus 42%). Similar gradients were observed by PIR and household food security, and among pregnant women whereby gaps were more evident in those experiencing socioeconomic inequalities. The use of dietary supplements attenuated shortfalls for most nutrients. These findings highlight a critical need to support the nutritional requirements for women of childbearing age and pregnant women.     

孕期膳食维生素C摄入与子痫前期及其临床亚型的关系

目的  探讨孕期膳食维生素C摄入与子痫前期(preeclampsia,PE)及其临床亚型的关系。方法  选取2012年3月1日—2016年9月30日于山西医科大学第一医院妇产科住院分娩的孕妇为研究对象,其中861例PE孕妇作为病例组,7 987例非PE孕妇作为对照组,收集其一般人口学特征、疾病史、家族史及孕期膳食摄入情况等。采用非条件logistic回归分析模型分析孕期膳食维生素C摄入对PE及其临床亚型的发生风险的影响。结果  调整孕妇年龄、文化程度等影响因素后,孕妇孕早期膳食维生素C摄入达到Q₃水平(OR=0.80, 95% CI: 0.64~0.99)、孕晚期达到Q₃水平(OR=0.78, 95% CI: 0.63~0.97)会降低PE的发生风险。按照孕前BMI进行分层后,孕前BMI < 24.0 kg/m²的孕妇孕早期膳食维生素C摄入达到Q₃水平(OR=0.73, 95% CI: 0.55~0.96)、孕中期达到Q₃水平(OR=0.71, 95% CI: 0.54~0.93)、孕晚期达到Q₃水平(OR=0.67, 95% CI: 0.51~0.88)是PE的保护因素。进一步探讨不同孕前BMI孕妇膳食维生素C摄入与PE临床亚型的关系后发现,孕前BMI < 24.0 kg/m²的孕妇孕晚期膳食维生素C摄入达到Q₃水平(OR=0.66, 95% CI: 0.47~0.93)会降低晚发型子痫前期(late-onset preeclampsia, LOPE)的发生风险。结论  孕前BMI < 24.0 kg/m²的孕妇Q₃水平的膳食维生素C摄入可降低PE的发生风险,尤其是对于LOPE。     

Dietary intake and use of dietary supplements in relation to demographic variables among pregnant Finnish women

Proper nutrition during pregnancy may be important for maternal health and fetal growth and development. In Finland, targeted recommendations are given to guide pregnant women in their food choice and dietary supplement use so that they may obtain adequate nutritional status and meet the increased need for nutrients. The aims of the present study were to examine food choices, nutrient intake and dietary supplement use of pregnant Finnish women in association with demographic variables. One thousand and seventy-five families were invited to a birth cohort study during 1998-9. Mothers of 797 newborns completed a validated 181-item food-frequency questionnaire from which the food and nutrient intakes were calculated. The information about supplement use was collected concerning the whole pregnancy. The results of the present study suggest that healthy food choices are rather common among pregnant Finnish women and the choices are positively correlated with age and education. Nutrient supplements were used by 85 % of the women. Supplements were favoured by the older and well-educated women and by those who had normal weight before pregnancy. Of the women in the present study, 31 % received vitamin A-containing supplements, although it is not recommended during pregnancy. Taking food and supplementation into account, the intake of vitamin D did not meet the dietary recommendation and folic acid intake was below recommendation in 44 % of the women. Therefore there seemed to be unnecessary nutrient supplementation and at the same time lack of relevant supplementation among these pregnant women.     

艾滋病致孤儿童膳食营养状况

  目的  了解乌鲁木齐市7~12岁艾滋病致孤儿童(艾滋孤儿)膳食营养状况,为促进其生长发育与健康状况提供科学依据。  方法  采用单纯随机抽样方法,抽取乌鲁木齐市7~12岁艾滋孤儿(98名)和同龄普通孤儿(66名)及一般儿童(145名)共309名进行营养状况调查。采用24 h膳食回顾法记录3组儿童一日三餐的饮食情况,按中国居民每日膳食营养素推荐摄入量(recommended nutrient intake, RNI)分析儿童能量及营养素摄入及达标情况。  结果  艾滋孤儿组消瘦检出率为44.9%,高于普通孤儿组(40.9%)和一般儿童组(28.2%);艾滋孤儿组和普通孤儿组超重率分别为3.1%,3.0%,均低于一般儿童组(8.3%);艾滋孤儿组能量及膳食营养素的每日平均摄入量低于其余两组,且钙、铁、锌和维生素A、维生素B₂、维生素B₆、叶酸以及维生素C、维生素D摄入量均未达标;艾滋孤儿组粮谷类、蔬菜类、水果类、蛋类、奶类、油类的日均摄入量均低于一般儿童组和普通孤儿组,除粮谷类、蛋类外,其余3组间差异均有统计学意义(F值分别为3.02,5.23,27.86,16.59,P值均＜0.05),而艾滋孤儿组和普通孤儿组儿童蔬菜类、水产类、蛋类、奶类的摄入均低于推荐摄入量。  结论  乌鲁木齐市7~12岁艾滋孤儿消瘦检出率较高,膳食营养摄入不均衡、营养状况欠佳。应改善艾滋孤儿的膳食结构以满足儿童青少年生长发育和健康的需要。     

Lactating women restricting milk are low on select nutrients

OBJECTIVE: Currently there are no recommendations for vitamin/mineral supplementation for lactating women but supplementation may be important, particularly for those women who choose to restrict milk intake during lactation. The objective of this study was to assess nutrient adequacy for lactating women and compare their dietary intake, including supplements, between those who restrict milk and those who do not. METHODS: A cohort of 175 healthy exclusively breast-feeding women (19-45 yrs) recruited from prenatal classes were divided into milk restrictors (RS) defined as milk intake < or = 250 ml/day and non-restrictors (NRS) (>250 ml/day) and followed for six months postpartum. Participants provided repeated 24-hr dietary recalls, detailed use of vitamin/mineral supplements and reasons for restricting milk. Statistical Analyses: Observed intakes were adjusted to remove day-to-day variability. Nutrient intakes were estimated for macronutrients and vitamins C, D, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and minerals, calcium and zinc, with and without vitamin/mineral supplements. Chi-square was used to compare the number of RS and NRS with intakes less than the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR). RESULTS: Milk restriction was practiced by 23% of the sample. Sixty per cent of RS reported protein intakes 相似文献   

妊娠期碘缺乏及补碘干预对后代神经智力发育的影响

  目的  调查中国高水碘和适水碘地区成年妇女膳食碘摄入量、碘来源以及贡献率,为指导不同水碘地区居民科学膳食提供依据。  方法  于2018年7 — 8月,在山东、河南两省选取1 320名18～60岁妇女开展食物频率问卷调查,记录膳食情况、饮水量和食盐摄入量,并结合食物碘、水碘及盐碘的实验室检测结果,计算日均膳食碘摄入量,根据中国膳食碘摄入量推荐标准对潜在风险进行评估。  结果  高水碘和适水碘地区成年妇女膳食碘摄入量分别为441.52和180.67 μg/d,介于推荐摄入量（RNI）和可耐受最高摄入量（UL）之间,均属于适宜水平。高水碘地区有18.12 %的被调查者碘摄入量高于UL,适水碘地区有27.14 %的被调查者碘摄入量低于RNI。2个地区碘盐食用率分别为8.96 %和25.93 %,对膳食碘的贡献率为0.03 %和8.39 %;水碘摄入量分别为383.06和93.06 μg/d,对膳食碘的贡献率为84.22 %和53.71 %,均有显著的地区差异。  结论  高碘和适碘地区成年妇女碘摄入量总体上是适宜和安全的,饮用水是膳食碘的主要来源,适碘地区碘盐食用率较低,导致部分人群存在碘缺乏的风险。     

Comparison of dietary food and nutrient intakes by supplement use in pregnant and lactating women in Seoul

This study was performed to compare the dietary food and nutrient intakes according to supplement use in pregnant and lactating women in Seoul. The subjects were composed of 201 pregnant and 104 lactating women, and their dietary food intake was assessed using the 24-h recall method. General information on demographic and socioeconomic factors, as well as health-related behaviors, including the use of dietary supplements, were collected. About 88% and 60% of the pregnant and lactating women took dietary supplements, respectively. The proportion of dietary supplements used was higher in pregnant women with a higher level of education. After adjusting for potential confounders, among the pregnant women, supplement users were found to consume 45% more vegetables, and those among the lactating women were found to consume 96% more beans and 58% more vegetables. The intakes of dietary fiber and β-carotene among supplement users were higher than those of non-users, by 23% and 39%, respectively. Among pregnant women, the proportion of women with an intake of vitamin C (from diet alone) below the estimated average requirements (EAR) was lower among supplement users [users (44%) vs. non-users (68%)], and the proportion of lactating women with intakes of iron (from diet alone) below the EAR was lower among supplement users [usesr (17%) vs. non-users (38%)]. These results suggest that among pregnant and lactating women, those who do not use dietary supplements tend to have a lower intake of healthy foods, such as beans and vegetables, as well as a lower intake of dietary fiber and β-carotene, which are abundant in these foods, and non-users are more likely than users to have inadequate intake of micro-nutrient such as vitamin C and iron.     

Inadequate vitamin D intake among pregnant women in Malaysia based on revised recommended nutrient intakes value and potential dietary strategies to tackle the inadequacy

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESRecently, the recommended nutrient intakes (RNI) for vitamin D for Malaysian aged 1–70 yrs has been revised from 5 µg/day to 15 µg/day. This study is aimed to assess the adequacy of vitamin D intake based on revised RNI and to recommend several dietary strategies to increase total vitamin D intake.SUBJECTS/METHODSVitamin D intake from both food and supplement of 217 pregnant women was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire. Hypothetical effect of expanded supplementation and food fortifications strategies were modelled using the consumption data.RESULTSThe results revealed that more than half (67.7%) of pregnant women had inadequate vitamin D intake (RNI < 15 µg/day). The modelling results demonstrated the potential of universal provision of 10 µg/day of multivitamins supplements in increasing vitamin D intake. Moreover, mandatory fortification of both milk and malted drink at single level of 5 µg/serving would lead to increase in vitamin D intake of Malaysians, particularly pregnant women.CONCLUSIONSThe outcome of this study can be used as a reference for public health professionals to re-evaluate the existing Malaysian food fortification policies and supplementation recommendation for vitamin D for pregnant women.