Runx2通过抑制细胞巨自噬以诱导C2C12细胞向成骨细胞分化

 目的：探讨细胞巨自噬与Runx2诱导C2C12细胞成骨分化的关系。方法： 在强力霉素(doxycycline, Dox)诱导Runx2表达的细胞系C2C12/Runx2Dox中进行研究。Dox (10 mg/L) 处理0 d、1 d、3 d及6 d后,real-time qPCR检测LC3b、Beclin-1、p62和LAMP-2表达情况,Western blotting分析LC3-I/LC3-II比值。设置不同的3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-methyladenine, 3-MA)或雷帕霉素(rapamycin, Rap)浓度,Dox处理14 d后分析碱性磷酸酶(alkaline phosphatase,ALP)活性。用3-MA (5 mmol/L)或Rap (10 μmol/L)与Dox共同处理1 d、3 d及6 d后检测ALP及骨钙素 (osteocalcin,OC)表达情况。结果： (1) C2C12细胞向成骨分化时,LC3b 与Beclin-1显著下调,p62与LAMP-2无明显变化;(2) LC3-I向LC3-II转换的过程被抑制;(3) 3-MA (5 mmol/L)可增强ALP 活性,而Rap(10 μmol/L)则抑制其活性;(4) 3-MA可上调ALP及OC表达,Rap则下调二者表达。结论： Runx2通过下调LC3和Beclin-1、抑制LC3-I向LC3-II转换的方式阻碍自噬体形成,以诱导C2C12细胞分化为成骨细胞。     

Protein kinase C phosphorylation of thymus myosin

Summary We have examined the effect of protein kinase C phosphorylation on the actin-activated ATPase activity and filament stability of calf thymus myosin. Protein kinase C phosphorylated thymus myosin regulatory light chains, LC20, on two sites which are different from the site phosphorylated by myosin light chain kinase. The light meromyosin part of the thymus myosin heavy chain was also phosphorylated by protein kinase C, but at a rate about 10% that of LC20. Under conditions where both unphosphorylated thymus and myosin light chain kinase-phosphorylated thymus myosin were filamentous and under conditions where myosin light chain kinase phosphorylation induces myosin filament formation, protein kinase C phosphorylation had little effect on the actin-activated ATPase activity or filament stability of unphosphorylated or myosin light chain kinase-phosphorylated myosin. In contrast, protein kinase C phosphorylation has been reported to inhibit the actin-activated ATPase activity of gizzard myosin.     

Cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 of Escherichia coli stimulates Rho/Rho-kinase-dependent myosin light-chain phosphorylation without inactivating myosin light-chain phosphatase in endothelial cells

Cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF-1) is an exotoxin of Escherichia coli that constitutively activates the GTPases Rho, Rac, and CDC42. Stimulation of Rho was shown to enhance myosin light-chain (MLC) phosphorylation via Rho kinase-mediated inhibition of MLC phosphatase in endothelial cells. Here we report that 3 h after CNF stimulation of endothelial cells, RhoA was activated and MLC phosphorylation was increased in a Rho/Rho-kinase-dependent manner, but no decrease in MLC phosphatase activity could be detected. Despite continuous RhoA activation, MLC phosphatase activity was doubled after 24 h of CNF stimulation, and this coincided with decreased MLC phosphorylation and cell spreading. Rac was also activated at 3 to 24 h but did not contribute to MLC phosphorylation, and its amount gradually decreased in the CNF-stimulated cells. CDC42Hs was not activated above control values by CNF. These results suggest that CNF can induce specific decoupling (Rho kinase from MLC phosphatase) and deactivation events in Rho GTPase signaling, potentially reflecting cellular protection mechanisms against permanently active Rho GTPases.     

Cardiac myosin binding protein C phosphorylation in cardiac disease

Perturbations in sarcomeric function may in part underlie systolic and diastolic dysfunction of the failing heart. Sarcomeric dysfunction has been ascribed to changes in phosphorylation status of sarcomeric proteins caused by an altered balance between intracellular kinases and phosphatases during the development of cardiac disease. In the present review we discuss changes in phosphorylation of the thick filament protein myosin binding protein C (cMyBP-C) reported in failing myocardium, with emphasis on phosphorylation changes observed in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by mutations in MYBPC3. Moreover, we will discuss assays which allow to distinguish between functional consequences of mutant sarcomeric proteins and (mal)adaptive changes in sarcomeric protein phosphorylation.     

Myosin heavy chain mRNA isoforms are expressed in two distinct cohorts during C2C12 myogenesis

The regulation of muscle fibre transitions has mainly been studied in vivo using conventional histological or immunohistochemical techniques. In order to investigate the molecular regulation of myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoform expression in cell culture studies, we first characterised the normal transitions in endogenous expression of the MyHC isoforms and the myogenic regulatory factors during differentiation of C2C12 muscle cells. Interestingly, across the time course of differentiation, MyHC mRNA isoforms were expressed in a distinct temporal pattern as two distinct cohorts, one including MyHC I, embryonic and neonatal, the other including MyHC IIa, IIx and IIb. The pattern of expression suggests a transition in MyHC isoforms, from one cohort to another, occurs during muscle cell differentiation and that these transitions occur independent of nerve innervation. To our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive analysis of in vitro MyHC mRNA isoform transitions and provides important information for studying the regulation of transitions in MyHC isoforms in cell culture systems.     

Myosin phosphatase: subunits and interactions

Myosin phosphorylation is an important mechanism in regulating contractile activity of smooth muscle. The level of myosin phosphorylation depends on the balance of two enzymes, myosin light chain kinase and myosin phosphatase. Recently it has been discovered that myosin phosphatase can be regulated and this renewed interest in characterization of the phosphatase. It is suggested that the myosin phosphatase is composed of three subunits: a catalytic subunit of type 1 phosphatase (δ isoform; PP1cδ); and two non-catalytic subunits, large and small (M20). The large subunit is thought to be a targeting subunit and is termed myosin phosphatase target subunit (MYPT). There are several isoforms of MYPT and two genes have been identified on human chromosomes 1 and 12. A dominant feature of MYPT is a series of ankyrin repeats at the N-terminal end of the molecule and these may be involved in binding to the catalytic subunit and to substrate, phosphorylated myosin. In addition, at the N-terminal fringe of the ankyrin motifs is a consensus PP1c binding motif. The function of the M20 subunit is not established but is known to bind to the C-terminal end of MYPT. Various interactions between subunits that might be relevant for the regulation of phosphatase activity are discussed.     

The variable coupling between force and myosin light chain phosphorylation in Triton-skinned chicken gizzard fibre bundles: role of myosin light chain phosphatase

The mechanism responsible for the regulation of smooth muscle tone at low levels of myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation is still poorly understood. According to one model, so-called latchbridges, which contribute to force maintenance at low levels of MLC phosphorylation, are generated by dephosphorylation of attached and phosphorylated crossbridges. The model predicts that the force generated for a given level of MLC phosphorylation depends on the activity of the MLC phosphatase. We tested this hypothesis by reducing the activity of the phosphatase by at least 80% in two ways: inhibition with okadaic acid and extraction. Under both conditions, higher levels of MLC phosphorylation were required to support a given level of force, suggesting a decreased flux of attached phosphorylated to attached dephosphorylated crossbridges, as predicted by this model. Although, under both conditions, the relationship between force and MLC phosphorylation was shifted to the right, the curves did not superimpose as would have been expected if the phosphatase activity were the only determinant of the coupling between force and phosphorylation. In the extracted fibres, two more proteins, calponin and SM22, were significantly reduced in addition. Therefore, these proteins might be involved in modulating the relationship between force and MLC phosphorylation.     

Mn2+ activates skinned smooth muscle cells in the absence of myosin light chain phosphorylation

Two effects of Mn²⁺ on skinned fibers from chicken gizzard smooth muscle were observed, dependent on the presence of absence of dithiothreitol (DTT) reducing agent. One involves protein oxidation (in the absence of DTT) with production of a latch-like state, and the other involves direct Mn²⁺ activation of contractile proteins. Cells activated by Mn²⁺ in the presence of ATP and the absence of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and DTT did not relax when transferred to normal relaxing solutions. In contrast, when 5 mM DTT was included in the Mn²⁺ contracting solution to prevent protein oxidation by Mn²⁺, the cells still contracted when exposed to Mn²⁺, but relaxed rapidly when the Mn²⁺ was removed. In the presence of DTT both the Mn²⁺ activation and the relaxation following removal of Mn²⁺ were more rapid than normal Ca²⁺-activated contractions and relaxations. The skinned fibers activated by Mn²⁺ in the absence of DTT showed little active shortening unless DTT was added. This rigor-like state is probably due to oxidation of contractile proteins since the cells relaxed when exposed to a relaxing solution containing DTT (50mM) and then contracted again in response to Ca²⁺ and relaxed normally. The Mn²⁺ activation was not associated with myosin light chain phosphorylation, in contrast to Ca²⁺-activated contractions.A preliminary report of this work was given at the Biophysical Society Meeting, February 1987: Hoar PE, Kerrick WGL (1987) Mn²⁺ activates skinned smooth muscle cells directly without myosin light chain phosphorylation and by reversible oxidation. Biophys J 51:332a     

Myosin regulatory light chain phosphorylation inhibits shortening velocities of skeletal muscle fibers in the presence of the myosin inhibitor blebbistatin

Phosphorylation of skeletal myosin regulatory light chain (RLC) occurs in fatigue and may play a role in the inhibition of shortening velocities observed in vivo. Forces and shortening velocities were measured in permeabilized rabbit psoas fibers with either phosphorylated or dephosphorylated RLCs and in the presence or absence of the myosin inhibitor blebbistatin. Addition of 20 μM blebbistatin decreased tensions by ~80% in fibers, independent of phosphorylation. In blebbistatin maximal shortening velocities (V _max) at 30°C, were decreased by 45% (3.2 ± 0.34 vs. 5.8 ± 0.18 lengths/s) in phosphorylated fibers but were not inhibited in dephosphorylated fibers (6.0 ± 0.30 vs. 5.4 ± 0.30). In the presence of 20 μM blebbistatin, K _m for V _max as a function of [ATP] was lower for phosphorylated fibers than for dephosphorylated fibers (50 ± 20 vs. 330 ± 84 μM) indicating that the apparent binding of ATP is stronger in these fibers. Phosphorylation of RLC in situ during fiber preparation or by addition of myosin light chain kinase yielded similar data. RLC phosphorylation inhibited velocity in blebbistatin at both 30 and 10°C, unlike previous reports where RLC phosphorylation only affected shortening velocities at higher temperatures.     

ATF4重组慢病毒抑制C2C12细胞增殖并促凋亡

目的 构建人活性转录因子4(ATF4)慢病毒,探讨C2C12细胞成骨分化过程中ATF4基因慢病毒修饰对其增殖和凋亡的影响.方法 构建ATF4重组慢病毒载体质粒,然后与2个包装质粒共转入293T细胞中包装成ATF4慢病毒(LV-ATF4);用病毒感染C2C12细胞,并用流式细胞仪(FCM)检测BMP2诱导C2C12细胞分化时对其增殖凋亡的影响,免疫印迹法检测凋亡相关蛋白的表达,电子显微镜观察凋亡细胞的形态学结构变化.结果 成功构建和包装了ATF4重组慢病毒.FCM检测结果表明,BMP2+ LV-ATF4处理组S期细胞(14.89％)低于BMP2+ LV-GFP组(30.64％) (P ＜0.05);BMP2+ LV-ATF4处理组细胞凋亡率(31.06％)高于BMP2+ LV-GFP组(11.39％)(P＜0.05);凋亡相关蛋白的表达与FCM结果一致.结论 在BMP2诱导C2C12细胞成骨分化时,LV-ATT4慢病毒可促进C2C12细胞的凋亡,抑制其增殖.     

Reversine对小鼠C2C12成肌细胞增殖与分化作用的初步研究

目的　初步探讨Reversine对小鼠C2C12成肌细胞增殖分化的影响。 方法　体外培养　C2C12成肌细胞系.实验第一步分三组:A组：正常对照组,B组：1μM Reversine处理12h组,C组：1μM 　Reversine处理24 h组。上述三组用Annexin-V/PI双染法处理C2C12成肌细胞并用流式细胞仪技术检测三组C2C12细胞凋亡的影响;实验第二步分五组：D组：正常对照组,E组：单独1 μM Reversine处理7d,F组：单独成骨诱导7 d,G组：1 μM Reversine诱导12h＋单独成骨诱导7d,H组：1μM Reversine诱导12h+1 μM Reversine联合成骨诱导7 d。上述五组光镜下观察细胞形态的变化,并通过逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)法检测五组C2C12成肌细胞分化抑制因子（ID2）,肌肉发生调节因子（Myogenin）,生肌因子后结蛋白(Desmin)mRNA的表达。 结果　与A组相比,C组1μM Reversine处理24h能引起C2C12细胞明显的凋亡,B组1 μM Reversine处理12 h的C2C12细胞未见明显的凋亡。与D组相比,E组和H组的细胞增殖明显受到抑制,F组和G组细胞逐渐增殖并融合。 结论　Reversine能够显著的抑制成肌细胞的增殖分化过程。     

Myosin phosphorylation and regulation of cross-bridge cycle in tracheal smooth muscle

We have tested the hypothesis that phosphorylation of the 20,000-dalton myosin light chains (LC 20) in rabbit tracheal smooth muscle modulates cross-bridge kinetics and isotonic shortening velocity. The thin muscle [190 +/- 10 (SE) microns] allowed detection of rapid changes in carbachol-induced active stress development, LC 20 phosphorylation, and isotonic shortening velocities. Phosphorylation of the LC 20 in resting muscle was 0.12 +/- 0.04 mol Pi/mol LC 20. Carbachol (10(-5) M) increased the level of phosphorylation to 0.46 +/- 0.03 mol Pi/mol LC 20 within 30 s. Phosphorylation then declined significantly as steady-state active stress was reached. A positive correlation was always found between LC 20 phosphorylation and shortening velocity. This result supports the hypothesis that the level of myosin phosphorylation was related to the mean cross-bridge cycling rate rather than the number of cross bridges contributing to the developed stress. Dephosphorylation of LC 20 occurred at about the same rate as the decline in shortening velocity and stress upon stimulus washout.     

Hypoxia inhibits myosin phosphatase in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells: role of Rho-kinase

Rho-kinase was recently found to phosphorylate the myosin-binding subunit (MBS) of myosin phosphatase (MP) and to regulate MP activity. Although myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) is thought to be the cellular/molecular basis for hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV), very little is known about the role that Rho-kinase/MP plays in HPV. Rat PASMCs were cultured and made hypoxic (PO2 = 23 +/- 2 mm Hg). Cells exposed to normoxia (PO2 approximately 148 mm Hg) served as controls. PASMCs exposed to hypoxia showed a significant increase in MLC and MBS phosphorylation, and a significant decrease in MP activity. Rho-kinase inhibitors (HA1077 or Y-27632) blocked hypoxia-induced MP inactivation and inhibited the hypoxia-induced MLC phosphorylation. Hypoxia was also found to induce stress fiber formation and actin polymerization in cultured PASMCs. In summary, these data show that MP inhibition in PASMCs is linked to activation of Rho-kinase, and that hypoxia inhibits the MP signaling pathway via Rho-kinase.     

Myosin light chain phosphorylation and posttetanic potentiation in fatigued skeletal muscle

Myosin light chain (P-LC) phosphorylation, which is thought to be the principle mechanism for twitch potentiation in skeletal muscle, is significantly decreased during staircase in fatigued muscle. Attenuated phosphorylation of P-LC could be due to either depressed Ca²⁺ transients in fatigue, or to some inhibitory influence of contractile activity on myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). Tetanic stimulation, which would presumably result in maximal activation of MLCK, could be used to evaluate these potential mechanisms. P-LC phosphorylation and twitch developed tension (DT) were assessed at 20 and 120 s following a tetanic contraction in either rested or fatigued rat gastrocnemius muscle in situ. P-LC phosphorylation was significantly lower in fatigued muscles (39.7 ± 3.2% vs 54.8 ± 3.5%, 20 s after a 2-s tetanic contraction), while posttetanic potentiation (PTP) was similar in fatigued (189.1 ± 6.5%) versus rested muscle (169.5 ± 2.6%). Tetanic DT was reduced following the fatigue protocol and, thus, the assumption that the MLCK system was fully activated by Ca²⁺ may not be valid. The potentiation-phosphorylation relationships were linear for both rested and fatigued muscles; however this relationship was shifted markedly leftward in fatigued muscles. It appears that during PTP, equivalent potentiation is attained with correspondingly lower levels of P-LC phosphorylation in fatigued muscle. This enhanced relative potentiation for a given level of phosphorylation could be expected if Ca²⁺ transients were attenuated in the fatigued muscle. However the results do not rule out the possibility that other factors contribute to potentiation under these circumstances. Received: 3 May 1995/Received after revision: 20 September 1995/Accepted: 15 November 1995     

RGD-grafted thermoreversible polymers to facilitate attachment of BMP-2 responsive C2C12 cells

The purpose of this study was to design thermoreversible biomaterials for enhanced adhesion of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)-responsive cells. Peptides containing the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) sequence were conjugated to N-isopropylacrylamide (NiPAM) polymers via amine-reactive N-acryloxysuccinimide (NASI) groups. In monolayer cultures, the adhesion of BMP-2-responsive C2C12 cells to RGD-grafted NiPAM/NASI surfaces was significantly higher than adhesion on ungrafted NiPAM/NASI surfaces. Although the morphology of cells adhered to RGD-grafted NiPAM/NASI surfaces was comparable to cells adhered on tissue culture polystyrene (TCPS), long-term cell growth was limited on the NiPAM/NASI surfaces, even for RGD-grafted surfaces. Treatment of C2C12 cells with recombinant BMP-2 induced dose-dependent osteoblastic differentiation as assessed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. In the absence of BMP-2, cells cultured on NiPAM/NASI polymers (either grafted with RGD peptide or not) expressed significantly higher levels of ALP activity than the cells cultured on TCPS, indicating that the polymer surfaces induced some osteoblastic activity in C2C12 cells without the need for BMP-2. We conclude that NiPAM-based thermoreversible biomaterials, despite their limited ability to support cell growth, allowed an enhanced expression of the chosen osteogenic marker (ALP) by C2C12 cells in vitro.     

Screening of natural medicines that efficiently activate neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells in C2C12-cultured medium

We have studied the effects of natural medicines on neurite outgrowth in PC12D cells in a cultured medium of C2C12 cells. Derived from mouse myoblasts, the C2C12 cells secrete neurotrophic factors including nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3). The secretion of these neurotrophins from C2C12 cells stimulate neurite outgrowth in PC12D cells. We have screened a total of 120 samples and found five natural medicines: Trichosanthes Root, Asiasarum Root, Lycium Bark, Sinomenium Stem, and Dictamni radicis Cortex, that enhance the activity of C2C12-cultured medium to stimulate neurite outgrowth in PC12D cells. These natural medicines promoted not only neurite outgrowth but also stabilized the neurite formation in PC12D cells for several days. RT-PCR analysis showed that NGF was significantly increased with Trichosanthes and Lycium Bark. However, BDNF was slightly decreased with Lycium Bark, Sinomenium Stem, and Dictamni radicis Cortex. NT-3 was increased slightly by all of these natural medicines except Sinomenium Stem. All these five natural medicines significantly increased the number and length of neurites in PC12D cells in co-culture with C2C12 cells.     

From pharmacomechanical coupling to G-proteins and myosin phosphatase

A brief summary of recent studies of pharmacomechanical coupling is presented, with emphasis on the role of GTP-binding proteins and Ca²⁺-independent regulation of contraction (Ca²⁺-sensitization/desensitization) through regulatory myosin light chain (MLC₂₀) phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Pharmacomechanical regulation of cytosolic [Ca²⁺] is largely, though not solely, controlled by the phosphatidylinositol cascade and Ca²⁺-pumps of the plasma membrane and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The monomeric GTPase, RhoA, is a major upstream component of Ca²⁺-sensitization. Its crystal structure and apparently obligatory translocation to the plasma membrane for activation of its downstream effectors are described. Inhibition of RhoA activity by a membrane-permeant ADP-ribosylating bacterial exoenzyme, DC3B, causes severe depression of the tonic component of agonist-induced contraction, suggesting that this component is largely due to Ca²⁺-sensitization. A relatively specific inhibitor (Y27632) of Rho-kinase, a downstream effector of Ca²⁺-sensitization (Uehata et al 1997), also inhibits oxytocin-induced Ca²⁺-sensitization of myometrium. The major mechanism of physiological, G-protein-coupled Ca²⁺-sensitization is through inhibition of smooth muscle myosin phosphatase (SMPP-1M), whereas conventional or novel protein kinase Cs play very little or no role in this process. Mechanisms of Ca²⁺-desensitization include inhibition of myosin light chain kinase and activation of SMPP-1M. Activation of SMPP-1M in phasic smooth muscle can be attributed, at least in part, to the synergistic phosphatase activating activities of a cyclic nucleotide-dependent kinase and its major substrate, telokin.     

香烟烟雾对C2C12小鼠成肌细胞HDAC2及炎症介质的影响

目的:探讨香烟烟雾提取物(CSE)对C2C12小鼠成肌细胞组蛋白去乙酰化酶2(histone deacetylase 2,HDAC2)和炎症介质的影响。方法:CSE刺激C2C12细胞,用质粒脂质体法将构建好的HDAC2 siRNA转染细胞,实时荧光定量PCR和Western blotting法检测HDAC2的表达情况,ELISA检测细胞培养上清白细胞介素-8(IL-8)和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)的含量。结果:CSE组细胞HDAC2的mRNA及蛋白表达明显低于对照组(P0.05),细胞上清IL-8和TNF-α的水平明显高于对照组(P0.05);应用HDAC2 siRNA转染细胞后再用CSE刺激细胞,细胞HDAC2的mRNA及蛋白表达均明显低于CSE组及对照组(P0.05),细胞释放IL-8和TNF-α的量均明显高于CSE组及对照组(P0.05)。结论:氧化应激条件下C2C12小鼠成肌细胞通过下调HDAC2表达使IL-8和TNF-α表达增多。