扩大乙状窦后经内耳孔上入路显微外科解剖学研究

目的 利用半规管切除技术,对乙状窦后经内耳孔上入路(RSA)进行改良,形成扩大乙状窦后经内耳孔上入路(ERSA),研究ERSA能否改善对中颅窝、上斜坡、三叉神经的显露.材料成人颅骨标本10例,福尔马林固定尸头标本15例,新鲜头颅标本3例.方法 先行乙状窦后经内耳孔上入路,磨除内耳孔上结节、岩尖,测量三叉神经、中颅窝、上斜坡的显露范围.再行扩大乙状窦后经内耳孔上入路,向侧方将岩骨上方的骨性结构切除,显露并阻塞上、后半规管和总脚,然后切除上、后半规管,再测量三叉神经、中颅窝、上斜坡的显露范围.结果 中颅窝的显露范围RSA为(144±34)mm2,ERSA为(487.2±37.2)mm2.上斜坡显露的范围RSA为(90.3±16.7)mm2,ERSA为(93.4±15.1)mm2.三叉神经的显露范围RSA显露Meckel腔内的三叉神经,ERSA扩大到半月神经节及其分叉.三叉神经的显露长度RSA为(9.1±0.7)mm,ERSA为(13.1±0.7)mm.结论 和RSA相比,ERSA可进一步扩大显露中颅窝,可扩大显露三叉神经到Meckel腔内的半月神经节,但上斜坡显露范围扩大不明显.     

乙状窦前入路处理斜坡凹陷区病变的量化研究

目的量化研究乙状窦前入路中每一步岩骨切除及血管神经牵拉完成后获得的斜坡中央凹陷区显露范围及手术自由度。方法对20例头颅标本采用乙状窦前入路,骨切除分4步进行：迷路后骨质切除,上、后半规管切除,切除岩尖并打开Meckel＇s腔游离三叉神经,全切迷路及耳蜗并后移面神经。每一步完成后分别测量斜坡中央凹陷区的显露范围和手术自由度。结果岩尖切除、打开Meckel＇s腔游离三叉神经后,斜坡中央凹陷区显露面积为（190±32）mm^2,占整个入路完成后的95％,与磨除上、后半规管后的显露范围相比差异显著,手术自由度亦显著增加。结论乙状窦前联合部分迷路岩尖切除手术入路能够较好的显露斜坡中央凹陷区。岩尖的切除和打开Meckel＇s腔游离三叉神经是充分显露斜坡中央凹陷区并提供足够手术自由度的关键步骤。     

经颞下和乙状窦前入路显露岩尖部的虚拟现实解剖学研究

目的在虚拟现实解剖模型中量化比较经颞下入路与经乙状窦前入路显露岩尖部的显微解剖学特征。方法利用15例(30侧)尸头CT和MRI影像构建岩尖部虚拟现实三维解剖模型。在颅盖上分别选取颞骨颧突根部上缘和乳突尖部为经颞下和乙状窦前入路的开颅标记点,颅底上选择岩尖部为显露标记点,以开颅和显露标记点连线为轴线作圆柱模拟经颞下和乙状窦前入路手术路径,观察和测量两种手术路径中解剖结构显露情况,采用配对t检验进行比较分析。结果经颞下入路手术路径经过颅中窝底和颞叶到达岩尖部,磨开岩骨后显露内耳道、面神经和迷路,向前显露三叉神经、岩上窦和海绵窦。经乙状窦前入路经乳突磨除岩骨,经面神经垂直段向深部依次显露颈静脉球、后组脑神经、听骨链、迷路和颈内动脉,路径到达内耳道时显露小脑前下动脉和面听神经复合体,到达岩尖部时包含小脑上动脉、岩上窦、岩下窦、海绵窦、三叉神经和部分颞叶。经乙状窦前入路手术路径中骨性结构、面听神经复合体、迷路和静脉体积均大于经颞下入路(P=0.000),颞叶、三叉神经和听骨链体积均小于经颞下入路(P=0.000)。经乙状窦前入路中包含后组脑神经体积为(32.38±2.86)mm~3、包含颅底动脉体积为(262.74±16.93)mm~3,经颞下入路不包含上述结构。结论经乙状窦前入路对岩骨周围和岩骨内结构的显露范围多于经颞下入路,对重要结构保护较好;经颞下入路经过颞叶到达岩尖部,适用于治疗累及岩骨并将颞叶向上推挤的颅中窝病变。     

乙状窦后经内耳门上人路颞骨岩部切除的量化研究

目的 研究乙状窦后经内耳门上人路(RSSMA)的安全性、可行性. 方法 将成人颅骨标本10例和湿标本18例的颢骨岩部行螺旋CT三维扫描.层厚均为1 mm.按改良乙状窦后人路技术开颅,以不损伤三叉神经、面听神经为原则切除内耳门上结节、岩尖,再在此基础上以显露总脚、水平半规管为下界向侧方磨除颞骨岩部.直到本人路可显露的最侧方点(FLM).采用CT和手工测量相结合.以内耳门的外上唇(SLIAM)作为测量的标志点,测量SLIAM到基底、总脚、前庭的距离,并计算内耳门上结节和岩尖各方向的切除率. 结果 岩尖的切除率按上下径、前后径、左右径递增,分别是(26±6)%、(45±5)%、(72±6)%.内耳门上结节的切除率上下径为(69±10)%,前后径、左右径均为100%.颈内动脉虹吸部段岩尖可切除率是(44±7)%.本人路SLIAM到FLM的距离始终大于SLIAM到前庭、总脚、内耳门基底的距离.SLIAM到FLM、前庭、总脚、内耳门基底距离分别为(17.6±2.0)mm、(10.1±1.4)mm、(10.4±1.5)mm、(10.6±1.1)mm. 结论 RSSMA切除岩尖时不易伤及颈内动脉虹吸部;其最侧方缘始终在前庭、内耳门基底、总脚的外侧,在向侧方扩大切除颞骨岩部时要避免前庭、半规管和总脚的损伤.     

经乙状窦后入路对桥小脑角区的显露及损伤程度的评价

目的对经乙状窦后入路对桥小脑角区的显露程度及其损伤程度进行定量综合评价。方法通过对成年国人带颈头颅标本6具（12侧），模拟常规的经乙状窦后入路的手术操作，在乙状窦后入路的基础上分别磨除内听道上结节和岩骨尖。每个手术步骤完成后，按Ammirat标准进行评价不同手术入路及其扩大后对桥小脑角区的显露程度，用Horgan法计算出显露面积，并根据损伤程度评分评价经乙状窦后及其扩大后的损伤程度。结果经乙状窦后入路及其磨除内听道上结节和岩骨尖后的显露程度评分均为3分，显露面积分别为（401．80±75．02）mm^2、（609．42±122．17）mm^2和（769．86±155．38）mm^2，每一步扩大后显露面积均较前明显增加（P〈0．001，P=0．003）；经乙状窦后入路及其磨除内听道上结节和岩骨尖后的损伤程度评分分别为3分、7分和10分。结论经乙状窦后入路对桥小脑角区肿瘤其显露范围广泛，损伤程度小，且可以根据肿瘤的大小和发展方向进行扩大显露，有利于最大程度的保护面神经和耳蜗神经，同时全切肿瘤。     

改良岩斜区手术入路的解剖学研究

目的改进岩斜区手术入路,使其更简单、微创。方法对20例10%甲醛固定的国人成人头颅湿标本和10例漂白颅骨干标本模拟乙状窦后经内听道上嵴入路和颞下经岩骨嵴入路行手术操作,对手术涉及的重要结构进行测量、拍照;手术前后对湿标本进行CT岩骨薄扫,对重要结构进行测量、拍照。结果乙状窦后经内听道上嵴入路涉及的重要结构有岩静脉、内听动脉、内听道上嵴等;重要参数包括岩尖骨质最大磨除范围前后径、横径。颞下经岩骨嵴入路涉及的重要解剖结构包括Labbe静脉、岩骨内部结构、脑干腹侧间隙等;重要参数包括岩骨嵴磨除范围。结论乙状窦后经内听道上嵴入路通过颅后窝开颅,磨除岩尖骨质,可切除颅中窝部分的肿瘤,适用于主体在颅后窝的岩斜脑膜瘤。颞下经岩骨嵴入路通过对岩骨嵴的磨除,增加了对岩骨背侧肿瘤基底的暴露,适合切除各型岩斜区脑膜瘤。     

经乳突后锁孔入路磨除部分岩骨显露中颅窝的内镜解剖学研究

目的探讨神经内镜下经乳突后锁孔入路密除部分岩骨显露中颅窝的范围、可行性及适应证。方法采用苏州大学附属第二院神经外科解剖实验室提供的不分性别、完整、无缺损的成人尸头标本8具（16侧）,模拟神经内镜下经乳突后锁孔入路磨除内听道上结节及岩尖显露中颅窝,观察最大的显露范围,标识Parkinson三角的边界,显露Meckel囊、海绵窦外侧壁包含的解剖结构,并测量乙状窦后缘中点至中颅窝各重要解剖结构的距离、Parkinson三角的边长。结果经乳突后锁孔入路可显露小脑脑桥角、脑干腹外侧、小脑幕切迹间隙、岩斜区及海绵窦外侧壁;可显露的中颅窝解剖标志包括：三叉神经节、滑车神经及外展神经海绵窦段、动眼神经岩床段、颈内动脉海绵窦后曲部及交通段、后交通动脉。乙状窦后缘中点至内听道上结节、三叉神经半月节、颈内动脉海绵窦后曲段的距离分别为（34．4±2．1）inin、（54．5±2．9）mm、（65．2±3．1）mm;Parkinson三角边长分别为（19．0±2．9）mm、（16．2±2．0）mm、（8．0±2．3）mm。结论神经内镜下经乳突后锁孔入路磨除部分岩骨增加中颅窝的有效显露,适合处理大部分后颅窝肿瘤、动脉瘤等病变,并能够完成主体位于后颅窝,小部分侵及中颅底病变的处理。     

内镜下扩大经鼻蝶入路至斜坡区的解剖学研究

目的探索内镜下经扩大鼻蝶入路显露斜坡区的可行性,为切除斜坡区病变提供解剖学参考。方法在10例成人头部固定标本上,内镜下模拟扩大经鼻蝶手术入路显露斜坡区,观察有关显微解剖标志。结果扩大经鼻蝶内镜入路可磨除从鞍后到斜坡、枕骨大孔前缘的骨性结构;可显露斜坡区腹侧硬膜下的椎基底动脉及其分支、后交通动脉及其与大脑后动脉汇合处、动眼神经、脑干腹侧等结构。此入路的手术标志主要包括:蝶筛隐窝、蝶窦开口、视神经隆突、颈内动脉隆突与颈内动脉视神经隐窝、咽结节、枕骨大孔前缘。结论内镜下扩大经鼻蝶手术入路可充分显露鞍后-斜坡区的腹侧硬膜下结构,适用于此区病变的手术治疗。     

远外侧入路不同部位骨质切除与显露范围的对比研究

目的 量化分析枕下远外侧入路中不同部位骨质切除与其相对应的显露范围的差别.方法 15例(30侧)经福尔马林固定的成人头颅湿标本模拟基础远外侧入路,行骨窗成形后分为3组:分别模拟经髁入路、髁旁人路及髁上入路,比较其对应的显露范围.结果 基础远外侧入路对斜坡方向显露范围为(15.77±1.67) mm,对枕骨大孔前缘向侧方的显露范围为(-1.85±0.63) mm,距颈静脉孔后缘手术距离为(11.23±0.46) mm,距枕骨大孔前缘的手术距离为(21.78±1.49) mm.与基础远外侧入路比较,经髁入路显著增加斜坡方向和枕骨大孔前缘方向的显露范围,明显缩短距枕骨大孔前缘的手术距离(P＜0.05);髁旁入路明显缩短距颈静脉孔后缘的手术距离(P＜0.05);髁上入路显著增加斜坡方向的显露范围(P＜0.05).结论 磨除枕髁可显著增加枕骨大孔腹侧和下斜坡的显露,磨除颈静脉结节可显著增加中斜坡的显露,磨除髁旁骨质可显著增加颈静脉孔区的显露.     

乙状窦后和乙状窦前入路微创显露颈静脉结节的虚拟现实对比研究

目的在构建虚拟现实解剖模型基础上,量化比较乙状窦后和乙状窦前入路微创显露颈静脉结节的显微解剖特征。方法 15例(30侧)尸头行CT和MRI扫描,影像数据输入虚拟现实系统构建颅后窝三维解剖模型。在颅盖和颅底中选择骨性标志点模拟乙状窦后和乙状窦前入路微创路径,观察和测量两种手术路径中解剖结构显露情况,采用配对t检验进行比较分析。结果乙状窦后入路由横窦下方开颅,包含小脑半球和小脑前下动脉,到达颈静脉结节时,路径包含舌咽、迷走、副神经和岩下窦。乙状窦前入路由乳突磨除岩骨,经过颈静脉球下端和颈内静脉,到达颈静脉结节时,包含部分副神经。测量手术路径和后组脑神经体积:乙状窦后入路乙状窦前入路;路径中骨性结构和静脉体积:乙状窦前入路乙状窦后入路,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。乙状窦后入路中包含小脑半球体积为(2750.50±123.27)mm3、小脑前下动脉体积为(78.72±1.75)mm3,乙状窦前入路不包含上述结构。结论乙状窦后入路有利于显露后组脑神经,显露过程应注意保护小脑和小脑前下动脉。乙状窦前入路显露颈静脉结节时,受到磨除岩骨操作和保护静脉窦的限制,适于处理累及颈静脉孔的病变。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Children

Summary: Pediatric patients have greater degrees of pharmacokinetic variability and unpredictability than adults. This variability results from the effects of pharmacogenetics, age and growth, prior and current comedication, and disease. Newborns with seizures have the least predictable dosage requirements, and their needs change as drug-eliminating mechanisms mature in the neonatal period. Infants have the highest relative capacities to eliminate antiepileptics of any age group and require the largest relative doses. In addition to age-related trends, children demonstrate the same drug-specific, pharmacokinetic phenomena that adults do, including nonlinear phenytoin elimination, nonlinear valproate binding, and autoinduction of carbamazepine. Intercurrent illness and drug interactions further modify the age-related pharmacokinetic patterns in children and make dosage requirements even more unpredictable. Recent studies have shown that febrile illness can affect drug elimination, sometimes decreasing drug levels by 50% or more. Intermittent treatment with benzodiazepines administered either orally or rectally can be an important adjunct and help minimize this type of problem for children with marginally controlled epilepsy. Intermittent benzodiazepines are also helpful for children who have febrile seizures and who need only occasional antiepileptic protection.