基于解剖学研究的枕下乙状窦后入路精准开颅技术探讨

目的　探索应用颅骨表面解剖标志指导枕下乙状窦后入路安全、精准、快速开颅技术。 方法　从2016年4月至2019年6月选取15具颅骨标本和8具尸头标本，定位颅骨标本解剖标志点：二腹肌沟顶点、乳突尖、星点及关键点（横窦-乙状窦移形处相对应颅外标志点），研究颅骨解剖标志点间的关系，制定开颅技术，并将该开颅技术应用于28例患者，通过评估相关指标，评价此开颅技术的可行性。 结果 （1）解剖研究及尸头验证：关键点与二腹肌沟顶点距离左侧为(16.79±3.50) mm、右侧为(14.82±2.96) mm，关键点与星点距离左侧为(19.53±3.84) mm、右侧为(22.59±4.08) mm，关键点与乳突尖的距离左侧为(33.98±3.87) mm、右侧为(32.78±3.29) mm，关键点与星点的距离左、右侧间差异有统计学意义（P=0.020）。将开颅技术应用于8例尸头标本，均未出现静脉窦损伤。（2）临床应用：28例患者进行开颅技术验证，23例横窦乙状窦暴露充分，无钻孔所致静脉窦破损，平均开颅时间为(23.1±2.2) min，骨瓣1.8 cm×2.0 cm，骨窗直径2.0~2.5 cm，术中骨瓣复位。 结论　以眶下缘与外耳道上缘连线为基线，过二腹肌沟顶点作基线的垂直线，在垂直线上定位二腹肌沟顶点上方14 mm(左侧)/12 mm（右侧）的点，确定此处为钻孔骨孔中心点并形成骨孔，可以获得满意的术区显露，避免静脉窦的损伤，为临床安全、精准、快速开颅提供依据。     

基于解剖学研究的枕下乙状窦后入路精准开颅技术探讨

目的　探索应用颅骨表面解剖标志指导枕下乙状窦后入路安全、精准、快速开颅技术。 方法　从2016年4月至2019年6月选取15具颅骨标本和8具尸头标本,定位颅骨标本解剖标志点：二腹肌沟顶点、乳突尖、星点及关键点（横窦-乙状窦移形处相对应颅外标志点）,研究颅骨解剖标志点间的关系,制定开颅技术,并将该开颅技术应用于28例患者,通过评估相关指标,评价此开颅技术的可行性。 结果 （1）解剖研究及尸头验证：关键点与二腹肌沟顶点距离左侧为(16.79±3.50) mm、右侧为(14.82±2.96) mm,关键点与星点距离左侧为(19.53±3.84) mm、右侧为(22.59±4.08) mm,关键点与乳突尖的距离左侧为(33.98±3.87) mm、右侧为(32.78±3.29) mm,关键点与星点的距离左、右侧间差异有统计学意义（P=0.020）。将开颅技术应用于8例尸头标本,均未出现静脉窦损伤。（2）临床应用：28例患者进行开颅技术验证,23例横窦乙状窦暴露充分,无钻孔所致静脉窦破损,平均开颅时间为(23.1±2.2) min,骨瓣1.8 cm×2.0 cm,骨窗直径2.0~2.5 cm,术中骨瓣复位。 结论　以眶下缘与外耳道上缘连线为基线,过二腹肌沟顶点作基线的垂直线,在垂直线上定位二腹肌沟顶点上方14 mm(左侧)/12 mm（右侧）的点,确定此处为钻孔骨孔中心点并形成骨孔,可以获得满意的术区显露,避免静脉窦的损伤,为临床安全、精准、快速开颅提供依据。     

颞底-经小脑幕手术入路的应用解剖学

目的 :对后颞部进行解剖学研究 ,为颞底 -经小脑幕手术入路提供解剖学基础。方法 :采用干性颅骨标本 2 0例及福尔马林固定的头颅标本 15例 ,进行解剖研究和模拟颞底 -经小脑幕入路。结果 :横窦从窦汇处开始向前逐渐升高 ,在顶乳突缝前角处 ,呈弧形向外移行于乙状窦 ,上缘与颧弓延长线的距离为 (11.2± 2 .2 )mm (8.2～ 14 .5mm )。顶乳突缝前角、星点与STP距离分别是 (2 .1± 2 .6)mm (0～ 9.3mm) ;(2 0 .4± 4.0 )mm(14 .1～ 2 6.4mm )。星点位于横窦上缘上、横窦上 1/2、横窦下 1/2、横窦下缘下分别占 16.7%、2 6.7%、3 3 .3 %、2 3 .3 %。颧弓、乳突上嵴与其相对应的颅中窝底相平。结论 :颞底 -经小脑幕入路骨窗的关键孔 (孔 1) :圆心在乳突上嵴 ,孔后缘与顶乳突缝前角相切。孔 2 :于关键孔后方 ,下缘与颧弓延长线的距离为 15mm。孔 3 :于关键孔前方 ,下缘平颧弓。星点变异大 ,不易作为定位横窦的标志。     

成人CT血管成像横窦体表定位研究及其意义

目的　利于64排螺旋CT确定横窦和乙状窦的体表定位,评价采用上项线和颧弓-枕外隆突连线作为横窦标志的准确性,为横窦区入路相关手术的骨窗定位提供解剖学基础。 方法　回顾性重建100例进行过64排螺旋CT头部CTA检查患者的横窦和乙状窦影像,对比观察体表骨性标志与静脉窦的位置关系,确定横窦的体表定位。 结果 星点主要位于横窦和乙状窦连接部的横窦侧;星点位于横窦和乙状窦连接部前上方占4%,星点恰好位于连接部占81%,星点位于连接部后下方占15%。颧弓-枕外隆突连线和上项线走行不完全一致,它们与横窦的关系多样;上项线与横窦走行不一致;颧弓-枕外隆突连线可作近段横窦的定位标志,但是随着它们向外移行,颧弓-枕外隆突连线则主要位于横窦下方,并且它们的距离越来越远。 结论 上项线不能代表颧弓-枕外隆突连线的走行,同时它们都不是定位横窦的可靠标志,64排螺旋CT的头部减影CTA检查可作为常规术前检查来明确个体解剖资料从而定位横窦和乙状窦,以便指导横窦区相关手术入路设计。     

内窥镜辅助乙状窦后锁孔入路的应用解剖

目的:研究内窥镜辅助下乙状窦后入路中的相关解剖,为临床应用提供参考资料.方法:在15具甲醛固定国人成年头颅标本上模拟乙状窦后入路手术操作,内窥镜下观察桥小脑角及入路相关解剖结构并测量手术相关解剖数据.结果:乙状窦大多分布在顶乳缝前角-乳突尖连线深面.乳突导静脉存在率为93.3%,均汇于乙状窦,其中67.9%与枕静脉的分支相交通.乙状窦后缘中点与Meckel囊内口、Dorello管、岩静脉-岩上窦交点、内耳门、舌咽神经、舌下神经及椎动脉的距离分别为(45.15±2.35)mm、(52.82±2.98)mm、(34.68±5.80)mm、(31.79±2.55)mm、(32.59±2.39)mm、(40.45±2.80)mm及(41.12±3.16)mm,横窦-乙状窦交点后缘与以上各点的距离分别为(48.10±2.34)mm、(57.41±2.76)mm、(38.19±4.87)mm、(36.00±2.11)mm、(38.39±3.02)mm、(47.71±3.08)mm及(49.31±3.18)mm.结论:内窥镜的应用和手术操作中熟悉乙状窦后缘、横窦-乙状窦交点及其毗邻结构的位置关系,可使乙状窦后锁孔入路更加微创.     

颅底后外侧解剖学研究及临床应用

目的：对颅底后外侧颅骨进行学研究，为手术入路提供解剖学基础。方法：采用干颅骨及福尔马林固定头颅标本各15例进行解剖研究和模拟乙状窦后手术入路。结果：枕外隆凸到颧弓根连线为横窦标志。星点，顶乳缝前角及乳突尖形成的三角区为乙状窦上下曲之间表面投影。关键孔位置在乳窦后平台。结论：作者设计的关键孔定位方法简捷，实用，方便，在模拟手术中可行性好。     

乙状窦后径路的应用解剖（摘要）

乙状窦后径路属小型的颅后凹开颅术,可作为进入桥小脑角的有效途径,在临床已采用。作者在25例正常成人头颅标本上,就与入路有关的形态学进行了观测,以供参考。主要结果如下:一、横窦下缘最高点至枕耳线(枕外隆突与外耳门上     

经乳突乙状窦入路手术及其相关的应用解剖

目的:为临床经乳突入路手术提供解剖学资料.方法:在15具10%甲醛固定国人成年头颅标本上,逐层解剖,磨除乙状窦表面骨质,暴露乙状窦,统计高位颈静脉球、乳突导血管的出现率.测量乙状窦三处不同位置的宽度、深度以及与外耳道后上棘和后骨半规管的距离.结果:33.3%的标本存在高位颈静脉球,乳突导静脉的出现率为93.3%.乙状窦在横窦-乙状窦交点,乙状窦膝部及颈静脉球上部的左侧宽度分别为(10.37±2.04)mm、(10.64±2.02)mm及(9.67±2.03)mm,右侧宽度为(12.06±1.94)mm、(12.18±2.18)mm、(10.27±1.94)mm;左侧的深度为(6.30±1.84)mm、(5.52±1.55)mm、(5.59±2.65)mm,右侧的深度为(8.56±1.56)mm、(7.81±1.48)mm、(6.81±1.88)mm.乙状窦与外耳道后上棘的最近距离为(13.84±2.74)mm,与后骨半规管的最近距离(13.84±2.75)mm.结论:乙状窦解剖学变异较大,影响乙状窦前入路的应用,但对乙状窦后入路的影响相对较小.     

侧颅底手术中乙状窦应用解剖学研究

目的　探讨侧颅底手术中乙状窦相关解剖标志的位置，为进一步提高侧颅底手术安全性提供解剖学基础。 方法　选取成人头颅标本40个，采用耳后切口行标准乳突根治术。充分暴露颅中窝及颅后窝硬脑膜、外半规管、面神经膝部、乙状窦、颈静脉球、乳突、茎乳孔、二腹肌嵴、外耳道后壁等重要解剖结构。使用双脚规测径器或电子数显游标卡尺分别测量相关解剖结构之间的距离。 结果　乙状窦前缘至外耳道后壁的距离是(1.41±0.32)cm，乙状窦外侧壁至乳突外侧壁的距离是(1.02±0.38)cm，面神经乳突段的长度是(1.28±0.13)cm，面神经乳突段起点（即面神经膝部）到乙状窦的距离是(0.56±0.20)cm，面神经乳突段终点（即茎乳孔部）到乙状窦的距离是(0.62±0.22)cm，二腹肌嵴至乙状窦的距离是(0.52±0.18)　cm，茎乳孔至乙状窦的距离是(1.02±0.24)cm。 结论　面神经乳突段起点和终点至乙状窦的距离及乙状窦至二腹肌嵴和茎乳孔之间的距离均呈正相关；乙状沟的深浅、宽窄及骨壁的厚薄因乳突气化程度不同而各异。     

颅骨锁孔经小脑幕上至幕下内镜手术入路的应用解剖

目的:探讨经颅骨锁孔由小脑幕上至幕下内镜手术入路的可行性和解剖学基础。方法:利用50件颅骨干标本观测相关骨性标志及其与硬脑膜窦沟的对应关系;利用10具湿性头部标本观测锁孔体表定位标志、小脑幕切口定位标志、内镜入路的角度、深度等解剖参数。结果:顶乳缝前角、乳突尖、枕外隆凸与乙状窦、横窦体表投影之间具有对应关系;小脑幕外侧部,颞骨弓状隆起后缘、小脑幕窦入口和乙状窦上曲内缘之间有1个安全三角区(小脑幕安全三角);以星点至顶乳缝前角连线中点所作上垂线15 mm处作为锁孔中心点,内镜可从锁孔经小脑幕安全三角至幕下脑桥小脑三角区。结论:颅骨锁孔经小脑幕上至幕下内镜手术入路具有可行性。有利于切除累及幕上下的病灶。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.