功能区皮层下小病灶相关性癫痫的手术治疗

目的评价综合应用多种定位技术治疗功能区皮层下小病灶相关性癫痫的手术方法及效果。方法 58例功能区皮层下小病灶引起的癫痫患者,在立体定向仪导向下,开放直视手术切除病灶,术中皮层脑电图(ECoG)监测定位致痫灶,术中神经电生理监测(IOM)判断致痫区的功能以及二者的重叠程度,辅助以麻醉唤醒定位语言区、实时超声检查病变切除程度,根据监测结果分别采取致痫灶切除术、多处软膜下横切术(MST)或皮层低功率电凝热灼术妥善处理致痫灶。结果病灶全部切除52例,少量残留6例。病灶区域ECoG监测除波幅略有降低外无明显异常13例,行占位病灶切除术;ECoG明显异常,在非主要功能区8例,行占位病灶+周边致痫皮层切除术;ECoG明显异常而又在主要功能区37例,行占位病灶+功能区致痫皮层多处软膜下横切术(MST)或低功率电凝热灼术。ECoG监测发现痫样放电消失、基本节律大致恢复正常29例,仍残留少量棘波13例,残存较多棘波且基本节律轻到中度异常16例。随访1～5年,EngelⅠ级46例,EngelⅡ级8例,EngelⅢ级4例,总有效率100%。出现暂时性轻偏瘫17例,暂时性失语8例,无严重永久性并发症。结论综合应用立体定向引导、术中IOM、ECoG、麻醉唤醒及实时超声定位治疗功能区小病灶相关性癫痫,能够精准定位并切除病灶及处理致痫灶,避免损伤功能区,是一种微创、安全、有效的手术方法。     

皮层脑电图辅助立体定向下手术治疗颅内钙化灶引起的难治性癫痫

目的研究立体定向下开放式手术联合术中皮层脑电图(ECoG)监测治疗颅内钙化灶性癫痫的手术方法、注意事项及效果。方法 21例颅内单发钙化灶引起的癫痫患者(其中主要功能区钙化灶9例),在立体定向仪导向下,开放直视手术,ECoG监测钙化灶周围皮层脑电活动情况,切除钙化灶后再次ECoG监测,确定致痫灶的范围及处理方式。结果所有钙化灶均被顺利切除。钙化灶区域ECoG监测无明显异常5例,表现为阵发性与动脉搏动相一致的单发性棘慢复合波发放9例,表现为明显癫痫样放电7例。单纯钙化灶切除术14例,钙化灶+周边增生组织+致痫皮层切除术4例,钙化灶切除+功能区致痫皮层低功率电凝热灼术3例。术后ECoG监测发现异常放电消失11例,仍残存轻中度痫样放电5例。无严重并发症。随访6个月～8年,EngelⅠ级16例,EngelⅡ级5例,总有效率100%。结论 ECoG监测是立体定向下手术治疗颅内钙化灶性癫痫的重要辅助手段,能够指导术中采取相应的手术方式切除钙化灶,妥善处理致痫灶,避免过多损伤脑皮层。     

103例颅内病变伴发癫痫术中皮层脑电监测结果分析

目的 探讨术中皮层脑电图（ECoG）监测在颅内病变伴发癫痫的外科手术中的意义。方法 在癫痫外科手术中，运用ECoG监测手段，配合手术医生。结合对致癫皮层低功率电凝热灼术，治疗颅内病变伴发癫痫患者。结果 103例颅内病变伴发癫痫患者，术中皮层脑电（ECoG）监测，病灶切除前，检出棘波97例，占94．2％（97／103）；病灶切除后，在ECoG指导下，手术医生调整扩大切除范围，并对致癫皮层进行低功率电凝热灼术后，再次行ECoG描记，检出棘波20例，占19．4％（20／103）。结论 在颅内病变伴发癫痫患者的手术中，运用ECoG监测，对于配合手术医生处理原发病灶及致癫皮层，起着积极有效的作用。     

术中脑电监测在癫痫手术中的应用分析

目的讨论术中脑电监测在癫痫手术中的应用意义。方法40例难治性癫痫患者，术中采用日本光电9200脑电描记系统。应用皮层电极，在致痫灶靶区皮层，对癫痫起源部位进一步精确定位，手术切除致痫灶，并在皮层脑电图（ECoG）监测下进行病灶扩大切除、胼胝体切开或多处软膜下横切（MST），术后常规应用抗癫痫药物。结果全部患者在预定的癫痫灶局部均可记录到癫痫波；病变及癫痫灶切除后即时检测，显示痫性放电明显减少24例，其中3例非功能区海绵状血管瘤，瘤体切除后仍可见大量棘波，扩大切除周围皮质，棘波显著减少；3例功能区胶质瘤患者虽经MST后，棘波有一定改善，仍可见一定量棘波；12例海马硬化及1例海马萎缩术后，仍存在一定量棘波。术后疗效评价，按照Engel分级评价为：Ⅰ级27例，Ⅱ级6例，Ⅲ级4例，Ⅳ级3例；总有效者37例，有效率达92．5％。结论在癫痫手术中运用脑电监测，可以进一步精确定位致痫灶，指导手术中正确切除癫痫灶及预示手术效果，有助于提高手术治疗的有效性，在癫痫外科治疗中具有一定应用价值。     

皮层脑电图监测下切除有癫痫症状的脑肿瘤

目的 探讨皮层脑电图监测下切除或热灼伴有癫痫症状的脑肿瘤的手术效果。方法 16例伴有癫痫症状的脑肿瘤患者，术中通过皮层脑电图确定癫痫灶，切除肿瘤后，切除或热灼可疑癫痫灶。术后随访患者的癫痫发作情况。结果 16例患者切除肿瘤前均可通过皮层脑电图探及痫波，肿瘤及痫灶完全切除后，痫波消失者15例，1例功能区患者虽多次皮层热灼，仍可见偶发棘波。术后15例未再有癫痫发作，1例有部分性发作，用抗癫痫药可控制。结论 术中皮层脑电图监测切除或热灼癫痫灶是一种有效控制肿瘤切除术后癫痫发作的方法。     

难治性癫痫的致痫灶定位及手术治疗研究

目的评价难治性癫痫的致痫灶定位方法和皮层电极监测下致痫灶切除,加行多处软脑膜下横纤维切断术(MST)治疗癫痫的疗效。方法对47例难治性癫痫病人的致痫灶,采用CT MRI EEG 单光子发射计算机体层摄影(SPECT) 皮层脑电脑(ECoG)联合检测定位。对检出的阳性病灶在皮层电极监测显微镜下行致痫灶切除,切除后监测仍有癫痫波者加行MST;致痫灶位于重要功能区者单行MST。结果致痫灶阳性检出率86%。皮层电极检测显微镜下致痫灶切除加MST,术后91%的病人癫痫发作停止,半年后约15%的病人复发,但症状较术前减轻,持续时间较术前短。结论CT MRI EEG SPECT ECoG联合检测,对手术定位具有较高价值。皮层电极监测下致痫灶切除术及MST创伤轻微、效果比较可靠、治愈率高、并发症少、复发率低。病灶及致痫灶的不完全切除和形成皮层软化及疤痕,可能是导致癫痫复发的重要原因。     

颅脑病变继发癫痫术中皮层脑电图监测96例效果分析

目的总结术中皮层脑电图（ECoG）用于神经外科手术治疗继发性癫痫的临床经验。方法使用多功能电生理监测仪,共对96例继发性癫痫患者术中皮层脑电图监测,对原发灶切除结合外周皮层电灼的方法,分析ECoG在继发性癫痫手术中的意义。结果通过术中皮层脑电图监测,其中88例在原发灶外周监测发现棘波（占91．6％）,切除原发灶及扩大手术范围行低功率电灼皮层后,85例棘波完全消失或明显减少（占96．6％）,术后复查常规脑电图（EEG）显示癫痫控制率为96．8％。结论术中皮层脑电图监测在颅脑病变合并继发性癫痫的患者治疗中,单纯切除原发灶及扩大范围电灼虽不能完全消除癫痫灶,但ECoG监测对于指导癫痫灶的处理是术中必不可少的监测手段。     

开颅手术治疗顽固性癫(癎)138例分析

目的评价顽固性癫痫的致痫灶定位方法和皮层电极监测下致痫灶切除，加行多处软脑膜下横纤维切断术（MST）治疗癫痫的疗效。方法对138例顽固性癫痫病人的致病灶，采用CT＋MRI＋EEC＋单光子发射计算机体层摄影（SPECT）＋皮层脑电图（ECoG）联合检测定位。对检出的阳性病灶在皮层电极监测显微镜下行致痢灶切除，切除后检测仍有癫痫波者加行MST；致痫灶位于重要功能区者单行MST。结果致痫灶阳性检出率86％。皮层电极监测显微镜下致痂灶切除加MST，术后91％的病人癫痫发作停止，一年后约15％的病人复发，但症状较术前减轻，持续时间较术前短。结论CT＋MRI＋EEG＋SPECT＋ECoG联合检测，对手术定位具有较高价值。皮层电极监测下致痫灶切除术及MST创伤轻微、效果比较可靠、治愈率高、并发症少、复发率低。病灶及致痫灶的不完全切除和形成皮层软化及疤痕，可能是导致癫痫复发的重要原因。     

颅内电极在功能区癫痫治疗中的应用

目的 探讨颅内电极在功能区癫痫治疗中致痫灶定位及功能区定位中的作用.方法 回顾性分析经我科治疗的涉及功能区的癫痫患者34例,经颅内电极植入明确致痫灶后,均行皮层电刺激定位功能区,根据致痫灶与功能区关系图决定治疗方案.结果 致痫灶与中央前后回相邻者10例,术中行单纯致痫灶切除术;与中央前后回部分重叠者14例,术中行非功能区致痫灶切除,功能区致痫灶皮层电凝热灼术;完全位于中央前后回皮层区域内者5例,术中行单纯皮层电凝热灼术.术后癫痫发作较术前明显减少,无明显术后功能缺失.结论 颅内电极植入是定位功能区癫痫致痫灶及功能区的有效方法.     

皮质脑电图在脑海绵状血管瘤所致癫痫手术中的应用研究

目的 研究皮质脑电图(ECoG)在脑海绵状血管瘤(BCA)所致癫痫手术中的作用.方法 对经正规抗癫痫治疗无效的85例BCA致癫痫患者,在ECoG监测下进行致痫灶定位,指导手术治疗.术后对患者进行随访及疗效评定.结果 术中ECoG监测发现本组患者的BCA病变区均存在棘波发放,而术前头皮EEG仅56例存在棘波,术中ECoG还发现31例患者有新的致痫灶.所有患者在ECoG监测下进行致痫灶切除(非功能区)或低功率热灼术(功能区).术后平均随访3.4年,疗效满意(癫痫发作完全消失)61例(71.8％),良好(发作减少≥50％)18例(21.2％),差(发作减少＜50％)6例(7.1％);总有效(满意+良好)率92.9％.结论 ECoG监测可在BCA所致癫痫手术中准确定位致痫灶,明显提高手术的疗效.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Clobazam for Treatment of Intractable Epilepsy: A Critical Assessment

Summary: Clobazam (CLB), a 1,5-benzodiazepine, is a remarkably effective add-on drug for individual patients with refractory partial epilepsy. CLB has an excellent safety record. As with all benzodiazepines used for treating epilepsy, sedation and withdrawal effects, together with the development of tolerance, limit its usefulness. Recent efforts to prevent or reverse tolerance with intermittent administration of CLB or periodic injection of a benzodiazepine antagonist, flumazenil, are encouraging and justify further investigations.     

La passion de Torquemada et le terrorisme islamique : quelques points de comparaison

This original research compares the doctrinal, psychopathological and operational standpoints of the 15th century Spanish Inquisition (Torquemada) with those of radical Islamism from 1988 to 2005 (Al-Qaeda). The following are reviewed: (a) the main texts codifying the procedure for conducting the criminal investigation of a Holy Office trial (Directorium inquisitorum); (b) the life and work of the grand inquisitor Tomás de Torquemada (1420–1498); (c) the psychopathological relations between passion (passionate psychoses, passionate idealism, paranoid personality) and fanaticism; (d) “the madmen, the enlightened and the criminals” of Islamic terrorism; (e) the cognitive and emotional motives for engagement in the jihadist radicalization of young people; (f) the common principles of monotheistic fanaticism (Inquisition, Al-Qaeda) and the particular dogmas of Islamic terrorism in our time; (g) the operating modes of the Inquisition and the Jihadist holy war. The author concludes that the rigour and seriousness of the inquisitorial judicial procedure, which was precise, individual and personalized, contrasts with the revolutionary pamphlets of Al-Qaeda, which only provide broad guidelines for the modus operandi of the fight against infidels, who are usually random victims.