New retraction technique to allow better visualization of Calot's triangle during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Background: Bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) are thought to occur because surgeons tend to confuse the common bile duct (CBD) with the cystic duct. Among reasons for this misidentification, the difference in the way the operating field is exposed in LC compared to open cholecystectomy should be noticed. Using Dr. Reddick's technique, which is commonly practiced, the upward and the lateral traction of the gallbladder results in a narrower Calot's triangle and angulation of the CBD. These anatomical distortions are thought to contribute to ductal injuries during LC. Methods: We propose a new method to expose Calot's triangle during LC. The principle of this technique is to expose the hepatic hilus by retracting the caudal surfaces of the quadrate and lateral lobes of the liver using an atraumatic curved instrument. Results: The advantages of this technique are that one gains wide exposure of the hepatic hilus, leaves Calot's triangle undistorted, and avoids tenting the CBD. Conclusions: This new technique may make LC safer and decrease the number of bile duct injuries associated with the misidentification of the anatomy. Received: 28 May 1996/Accepted: 2 December 1996     

胆囊三角纤维化的腹腔镜胆囊切除术临床体会

目的:探讨腹腔镜下安全解剖纤维化胆囊三角的方法。方法:回顾分析2005年1月至2007年12月我院为胆囊三角纤维化的254例患者经内、外三角联合入路或逆行法行腹腔镜胆囊切除术(laparoscop ic cholecystectomy,LC)的临床资料。结果:244例经内、外三角联合入路解剖或逆行法顺利完成LC,成功率96.1%,中转开腹10例,无胆管损伤发生。结论:胆囊三角纤维化时,经内、外三角联合入路解剖或逆行法行LC安全、有效。     

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in 1994

Background: In 1996, laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the gold standard for symptomatic cholelithiasis. The results of this operation as published so far include data on the learning curve of the method. The aim of this study is to evaluate the results of laparoscopic cholecystectomy when performed by a large number of surgeons during the year 1994, not taking into account the beginning years in which the technique was being used. Methods: This study has been carried out prospectively and anonymously among members of SFCERO. All the patients who underwent a cholecystectomy started laparoscopically during 1994 have been included. Results: Some 4,624 cholecystectomies were performed by 150 surgeons. There were 3,310 females (42.5 ± 19.8 years old) and 1,314 males (56.3 ± 1.61 years old). The conversion rate was 6.9%: 320 operations had to be converted into laparotomy (group II) while 4,261 were performed entirely by laparoscopy (group I). Morbidity was 5% (N= 230)—4.7% in group I (N= 203) and 8.4% in group II (N= 27). Mortality was 0.2% (N= 9)—namely four intraabdominal complications (three cases of peritonitis and one biliary reoperation), two cardiac failures, and one brain infarction. The causes of death were not specified in two patients. Conclusions: These results show that morbidity and mortality have not changed dramatically since the beginnings of this technique, whereas the frequency of common bile duct (CBD) injuries has decreased. However, the conversion rate has increased slightly. These results make it possible to calculate the risk of conversion and postoperative complication according to the age of the patient and the biliary symptoms. Received: 25 January 1996/Accepted: 10 April 1996     

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy and gallbladder cancer

Background: This study was designed to assess the treatment of patients in whom gallbladder cancer was diagnosed in the course of histological examination of their gallbladders, which were removed during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Methods: Six (0.29%) cancers were found among 2,017 patients who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Four of these cancers (0.22%) were in 1,831 gallbladders with normal walls, two (1.0%) were in 186 with thicker walls, and two (1.8%) were in 109 patients in whom conversion was necessary because of extensive inflammation and thickening of gallbladder wall. Results: In two cases, the cancer did not cross the muscular layer. In one of them, no further treatment was undertaken. In the second case, liver resection and lymphadenectomy was performed. In the other four cases, dissemination was diagnosed during laparotomy, precluding radical treatment. Conclusions: Thickened and infiltrated gallbladder walls in patients without preoperative symptoms of cholecystitis should raise a suspicion of cancer. The surgeon should be prepared to perform a conversion, an intraoperative histological examination, and an appropriate radical operation, if necessary. Received: 16 June 1998/Accepted: 17 November 1998     

Unexpected gallbladder cancer after laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Gallbladder cancer (GC) has been reported in 0.3–1.5% of cholecystectomies. Since the introduction of laparoscopic surgery, cholecystectomies have increased and occult GC may therefore be more frequent. Herein we analyze our own experience to determine whether there was an increase in GC. We also evaluate the risk factors for this outcome. Four patients with GC undiagnosed before surgery (four of 602 cases, or 0.66%) were submitted to laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The percentage in patients who underwent open surgery was 0.28% (two of 714 cases). Without reoperation, three patients died in the laparoscopic group and one is alive at 12 months. Trocar site metastasis was not observed. Although the percentage of GC (0.28% versus 0.66%) increased, the percentage is still in the referred average. Undiagnosed GC is on the increase. Examination of the gallbladder and a frozen section, if necessary, are recommended. Calcified gallbladders, age >70 years, a long history of stones, and a thickened gallbladder all represent significant risk factors. Received: 30 July 1997/Accepted: 24 October 1997     

腹腔镜胆囊切除术Calot三角的解剖变异及处理

目的:总结腹腔镜胆囊切除术(laparoscopic cholecystectomy,LC)中Calot三角解剖变异的处理经验,以减少LC手术并发症。方法:回顾性分析146例LC中Calot三角的解剖变异及处理方法。结果:胆囊管变异占2.7%,胆囊动脉变异占11.6%,胆囊缺如占0.69%,144例成功实施LC,成功率为98.6%,中转开腹2例(1.4%)。结论:胆道变异极常见,正确分析处理胆囊管和胆囊动脉解剖变异是减少并发症的关键。     

后三角入路腹腔镜胆囊切除术

目的探讨腹腔镜下安全解剖胆囊管的方法. 方法回顾性分析2000年11月～2003年4月,经后三角入路解剖胆囊管行300例腹腔镜胆囊切除术(laparoscopic cholecystectomy,LC)的临床资料. 结果经后三角入路解剖胆囊管,顺利完成LC 282例,中转开腹18例,中转开腹率6.0%(18/300).术后发生并发症2例,占0.7%(2/300) . 结论经后三角入路解剖胆囊管进行LC是一种安全、容易掌握的手术方法.     

胆囊后三角应用解剖及其在腹腔镜胆囊切除术中的临床意义

目的探索胆囊后三角的解剖结构,为腹腔镜胆囊切除术提供胆囊后三角解剖学基础。方法2005年9月至2008年1月山东省泰安卫生学校、山东省立医院、泰山医学院附属医院、荣成市人民医院选用81例成人尸体标本,模拟腹腔镜胆囊切除术胆囊后三角入路,观察胆囊后三角的组成边界、穿行结构及毗邻关系。结果胆囊后三角由胆囊颈部后壁、胆囊管、胆总管上段和肝右叶脏面组成;胆囊管的长度(3018±219)mm,直径为(302±036)mm,其形状有直线型和弯曲型;胆囊动脉的直径为(168±035)mm;胆囊管较胆囊动脉粗,二者差异有统计学意义（P＜005）;6例（74%）于胆囊后三角后下方见异常胆囊动脉,自胆囊颈及胆囊体后方入胆囊,胆囊动脉自胆囊管后方走行进入胆囊8例（99%）,胆囊动脉走行于胆囊管前方5例（61%）;5例（61%）发自肝右叶脏面的副肝管通过胆囊后三角经胆囊管和肝总管汇合处后下方入胆总管。结论熟悉胆囊后三角的组成结构及毗邻关系,是避免手术时损伤血管和胆管的关键,对腹腔镜胆囊切除术的开展具有指导意义。     

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy and interventional endoscopy for gallstone complications during pregnancy

Background: Symptomatic or complicated gallstone disease is the most common reason for nongynecological operations during pregnancy. Gallstones are present in 12% of all pregnancies, and more than one-third of patients fail medical treatment and therefore require surgical endoscopy or laparoscopy. Gallstone pancreatitis and jaundice during pregnancy is associated with a high recurrence rate, exposing both fetus and mother to an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Methods: During a 4-year period, all pregnant patients (n= 37) with symptomatic or complicated gallstone disease were studied prospectively at the Landeskrankenhaus in Salzburg, Austria. Five patients had an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatogram (ERCP) for biliary pancreatitis or jaundice; two of these underwent subsequent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Another seven patients required laparoscopic cholecystectomy for severe pain or cholecystitis; all were in their 13th–32nd gestational week. Access was established by Veress needle in all cases. Insufflation pressure was 8–10 mmHg, and mean operative time was 62 min. Results: All patients delivered full-term, healthy babies. There were no postendoscopic or postoperative complications. All patients enjoyed full relief from their symptoms; there were no recurrences of pancreatitis or jaundice. Conclusions: The combination of ERCP and laparoscopic cholecystectomy offers a safe and effective option for the definitive treatment of complicated gallstone disease and intractable pain during pregnancy, and there is sufficient access for the combined treatment to be employed. Received: 7 September 1998/Accepted: 2 June 1999     

Laparoscopic ultrasonography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Background: This study assessed the effectiveness of laparoscopic ultrasonography in demonstrating biliary anatomy, confirming suspected pathology, and detecting unsuspected pathology. Methods: Laparoscopic ultrasonography was performed on 48 patients (17 M:31 M) who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. An Aloka 7.5-MHz linear laparoscopic ultrasound transducer was used for scanning. Results: Gallbladder stones were confirmed by laparoscopic ultrasonography in all patients and unsuspected pathology was found in five patients. Two patients were found to have common bile duct stones by laparoscopic ultrasonography and this was confirmed by laparoscopic cholangiography. Laparoscopic ultrasound was found to be helpful during dissection in four patients, particularly in a patient with Mirizzi syndrome. The entire common bile duct was visualized by laparoscopic ultrasonography in 40 patients but was poorly seen in eight patients. The mean time taken for the examination was 9 min (range 4–18 min). Conclusion: Laparoscopic ultrasound is useful during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Received: 8 November 1995/Accepted: 5 May 1996     

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy and time-course changes in renal function

Background: Recently, the retraction method has been used to reduce intraabdominal pressure (IAP) during laparoscopic surgery. The purpose of this study was to determine the serial changes in renal function during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) using the retraction method. Methods: Urine output, effective renal plasma flow (ERPF), and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) were measured serially in seven patients who underwent LC with 12 mmHg pneumoperitoneum (High-IAP group) and five who underwent LC using the retraction method with 4 mmHg pneumoperitoneum (Low-IAP group). Results: Urine output, ERPF, and GFR were decreased during pneumoperitoneum in the High-IAP group, whereas no significant changes in any of these parameters were observed in the Low-IAP group. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate that reduction of IAP to 4 mmHg using the retraction method prevents the transient renal dysfunction caused by prolonged 12 mmHg pneumoperitoneum during LC, suggesting that the retraction method reduces the risk of perioperative renal dysfunction during laparoscopic surgery. Received: 26 March 1996/Accepted: 27 July 1996     

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy using fine-caliber instruments

The advantages of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) are based on its low invasiveness due to the small surgical wounds. If LC could be performed using fine-caliber instruments, these advantages would be amplified. We developed 3-mm-caliber instruments and performed LC in 20 patients using one 5-mm and two 3-mm instrument ports. The results were retrospectively compared with those of standard LC. The operating time (107.2 ± 50.0 min), complication rate (0%), number of doses of analgesia (0.80 ± 0.83), and postoperative hospital stay (4.9 ± 1.2 days) were not significantly different between our method and standard LC. At 6 months postoperatively, the scars were smaller with our method. Surgery using fine-caliber instruments was no more difficult than standard LC and achieved a superior cosmetic outcome. Received: 13 March 1996/Accepted: 19 July 1996     

Combined intraoperative laparoscopic cholecystectomy and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

Background: The role and timing of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in patients with suspected choledocholethiasis remains a controversial subject. There have been few studies exploring the role of intraoperative ERCP. Therefore, we set out to perform a retrospective review of 29 patients who underwent combined laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) and intreoperative ERCP (LC/ERCP). Our objective was to assess the feasibility of a one-stage approach using intraoperative ERCP. Methods: We identified 29 patients in whom LC/ERCP was attempted between January 1996 and November 1998 at a university-affiliated hospital with a large private faculty. Parameters reviewed included preoperative diagnosis, liver function tests (LFT), finding on transcystic cholangiogram (TCC), ERCP, stone retrieval, failure of ERCP, length of stay, morbidity, and mortality. Results: Twenty-eight of 29 patients (97%) underwent successful combined LC/ERCP. Successful TCC followed by ERCP was performed in 21 of 26 patients (81%). Five TCC were technically unsuccessful; in these patients, ERCP was performed on the basis of preoperative criteria. In three patients, TCC was not attempted. Stones were successfully retrieved from 20 of 21 patients (95%) with abnormal finding on TCC, one of five patients (20%) with failed TCC, and two of three patients (67%) with ERCP but without TCC. Overall morbidity was 14%, comprising two patients with postoperative hyperamylasemia and two with cystic duct leaks. There were no deaths in the group. The mean time for the combined procedure was 173 min (range, 50–290). Mean length of hospitalization was 3.4 days, and mean postoperative stay was 2.2 days. Conclusions: LC/ERCP can be performed safely. The advantages of the combined procedures include one-stage treatment of cholelithiasis and choledocholithiasis, avoidance of unnecessary preoperative ERCP and their concomitant complications, and elimination of potential return to the operating room when postoperative ERCP is technically impossible. Received: 3 February 1999/Accepted: 10 September 1999     

A miniature probe enables clear demonstration of the cystic duct during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

We performed intraoperative ultrasonography with a miniature probe to explore the biliary anatomy, especially the cystic duct, during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. By using this radial-type probe introduced into a hard metal sheath with a balloon at the end, the plane containing Calot's triangle can be scanned easily when the gallbladder is extracted to the right side, thereby facilitating the identification of the cystic duct as well as the common ducts. In 30 cases, no common duct stone was found and the cystic duct was clearly identified. This radial-type miniature probe can be used to locate the cystic duct and avoid inadvertant incision or division of the common ducts. Received: 17 March 1997/Accepted: 10 July 1997     

Coincidental finding of hepatic carcinoid micrometastases during routine laparoscopic cholecystectomy

A case of a coincidental finding of hepatic carcinoid micrometastases, barely visible to the eye, during routine laparoscopic cholecystectomy is reported. The micrometastases were possibly recognized as a result of a beneficial aspect of laparoscopic surgery, namely the >10× enlargement of tissue/pathologic structures. Received: 16 August 1996/Accepted: 28 February 1997     

Intraperitoneal bile collections after laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Background: Bile leakage is more common after laparoscopic cholecystectomy than after open surgery. In our department, the rate of postoperative bile collections after open surgery is 0.2% vs 0.6% after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Methods: We studied 13 cases of intraperitoneal bile collection without common bile duct damage drawn from a total of 5,200 laparoscopic cholecystectomies (0.23%). Clinical presentation, symptoms, method of diagnosis, causes, time of diagnosis, correlation of time of diagnosis with definitive treatment, and postoperative results were analyzed. Results: The symptoms appeared between the 5th and 8th postoperative days. They were observed in patients with either chronic or acute cholecystitis. The main causes were misapplication of clips at the cystic duct and open Luschka's duct. Ultrasound failed for early recognition of bile collections. The definitive diagnosis was made by repeat ultrasonography, CAT scan, and ERCP. Conclusion: The ideal treatment in these cases is a minimally invasive procedure, but since the diagnosis is frequently delayed, open surgery is performed in the majority of patients. However, there were no mortalities in this group of patients. Received: 12 November 1998/Accepted: 15 July 1999/Online publication: 29 August 2000     

Use of the ultrasonic dissecting scalpel in laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Background: We evaluated the use of the ultrasonically activated (harmonic) scalpel (HS) in the performance of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Methods: A total of 282 consecutive patients, 64 of whom had acute cholecystitis at the time of surgery, underwent LC using HS dissection. Indications for surgery included chronic pain (180 cases), episodes of acute cholecystitis (89 cases), pancreatitis (five cases), and jaundice (seven cases). Twenty-seven patients had preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Results: The mean operating time was 29 ± 9 mins. Eleven procedures were converted to open surgery, (four due to bleeding, six due to unclear anatomy, and one due to an inflammatory mass caused by gangrene/perforation). Complications occurred in 14 patients. They included minor port site infection (four cases), pulmonary atelectasis (three cases), urinary retention (two cases), intraoperative cathetherization not routinely performed, bile leak (two cases, both from cystic duct; one of the cystic duct leaks occurred because of dislodgement of the occluding clip, the other may have been due to duct injury from the clip), pulmonary embolus (one case), and myocardial infarction (one case). Neither of the latter complications were fatal. One patient required a postoperative transfusion due to a fall in hematocrit of 3.2 gr/dl. Conclusions: LC performed with the HS is feasible and effective. Operating time and blood loss were minimal, and the conversion rate was low (3.9%). There were no bile duct injuries. Use of the HS makes dissection easier, thereby helping to reduce operative time and lower the need for conversion to open surgery. Received: 30 April 1999/Accepted: 22 November 1999/Online publication: 4 August 2000     

Diaphragmatic hernia seen as a late complication of laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Laparoscopic surgery has emerged as the standard of care for the elective operative management of symptomatic gallbladder disease. The surgical literature is now beginning to accumulate sufficient case numbers that more clearly define the associated morbidity of this type of surgery. This article reports an instance of iatrogenic injury to the right muscular hemidiaphragm and subsequent hernia after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Received: 22 July 1998/Accepted: 13 October 1998     

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the elderly

Background: Advanced age with its concomitant comorbid conditions may be associated with increased postoperative laparoscsopic cholecystectomy (LC) complications and more frequent conversion to open cholecystectomy (OC). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the outcome of LC in patients age 65 and older. Methods: Ninety consecutive patients were studied age 65 and older, of whom 39 (43%) were males and 51 (57%) were females, mean age 74 years (range 65–98), with 20 patients (22%) ≥ 80. Indications for surgery included biliary colic 55 (61%), acute cholecystitis 22 (24%), pancreatitis 10 (11%), and cholangitis 3 (4%). Seventeen patients (19%) had preoperative ERCP, 12 of which were normal; five had sphincterotomy with stone extraction. Comorbid conditions included hypertension (44%), CAD (17%), cardiac arrhythmias (18), CHF (9%), and COPD (7%). Results: Operative time—mean 1 h 51 min ± SD 43 min. Conversion to OC—three patients (3%). Length of stay—mean 5 days (range 1–26). Mortality—two patients (2%) >80 years old, one patient with septicemia and multiorgan failure whose comorbid diseases included CAD, C.F., COPPED, and elevated BP, one patient with MI postsurgery, morbid diseases included DM and CAD. Complications—five patients (5%): bile leak from cystic duct stump (one), postsurgery MI (two), incarcerated incisional hernia (one), septicemia (one). Conclusion: Morbidity rates for LC in the elderly population are not different from that reported for patients less than 65 years of age. (5% vs 6%, Fried et al., Surg Clin North Am 1994;74 [2]: 375–387). Our 2% mortality rate is statistically different from previously reported in a series of patients of all ages (0.6%, Fried et al.). The 3% rate of conversion to OC in this older population is not significantly different from the patients in Fried et al. series (4%). Received: 17 September 1996/Accepted: 14 October 1996     

胆囊动脉免夹腹腔镜胆囊切除术(附168例报告)

目的:探讨腹腔镜胆囊切除术(LC)中应用单极电凝而免于钛夹钳夹胆囊动脉的可行性及临床应用价值。方法:168例病例采用2人3孔法完成LC,胆囊管残端钳夹钛夹1枚,单极电凝仔细解剖胆囊三角,组织边凝边切,胆囊动脉“骨骼化”后分段电凝后中间电切离断而不用钛夹钳夹。结果:手术时间10~20m in,平均15m in,手术中出血量5~20m l,平均12.5m l。无副损伤及中转开腹病例。结论:2mm以下的胆囊动脉仅用单极电凝止血而免于钛夹钳夹是安全的。