Post-traumatic bilateral facial palsy: a case report and literature review

Bilateral facial paralysis due to basilar skull fracture involving the temporal bone is rare and, unlike unilateral facial palsy, it can be difficult to recognize because of a lack of facial asymmetry. Thorough clinical history and physical exam, high-resolution CT scan and electrodiagnostic tests can help to make the diagnosis of bilateral facial nerve palsy and early detection, evaluation and intervention may be important for optimal functional recovery. A 16-year-old male sustained closed head injury after motor vehicle collision. The initial head CT scan showed bilateral temporal bone fractures. On admission to the neurotrauma intensive care unit, his Glasgow Coma Score was 9T. On post-injury day 4, the patient was noted to have incomplete closure of both eyes and 3 days later he had difficulty with bilateral facial muscle movement during a feeding trial. Electrodiagnostic testing confirmed the diagnosis of bilateral facial nerve injury without evidence of significant distal axonal degeneration. A high-resolution CT scan showed bilateral temporal bone fractures without involvement of the fallopian canals. There was no surgical intervention based on the high-resolution CT scan and the delayed onset of facial palsy. A short course of prednisone was administered. By 10 months, the patient showed nearly complete recovery of his bilateral facial nerve function. Early detection, evaluation and intervention are important for optimal functional recovery after facial nerve injury. When the temporal bone is fractured, high suspicion for facial nerve injury, either unilateral or bilateral, is warranted.     

High resolution CT scan of temporal bone fractures: association of facial nerve paralysis with temporal bone fractures

This radiologic study analyzed high resolution computed tomographic (CT) scans of 22 patients with temporal bone fractures. There were 19 males and three females. Fifteen of 22 had clinical evidence of facial nerve injury ranging from mild paresis to complete paralysis. The high resolution CT scan analysis identified a characteristic fracture of the temporal bone in every patient with facial nerve injury. A high percentage of these fractures (68%) could be classified as mixed and did not fall into a longitudinal or transverse fracture category. The characteristic fracture extends from the petrotympanic fissure at the glenoid fossa to the anterior inferior aspect of the medial bony external auditory canal. It resumes at the superior aspect of the external auditory canal (scutum) extending laterally along the external canal wall. If the vector force of the fracture is projected medially, it will cross the facial nerve in its horizontal portion. Often, the evaluation of trauma patients with routine CT scans for central nervous system (CNS) (brain) evaluation is inadequate for evaluation of temporal bone fractures. A high resolution CT scan should be performed when clinical criteria warrant its use. It is recognized that the incidence of facial nerve injury may be higher in this select population.     

Quantitative morphology of facial nerve based on three-dimensional reconstruction of temporal bone.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate an effective method of quantitative analysis of the facial nerve and its adjacent structures on the basis of three-dimensional (3D) CT image reconstruction of the temporal bone. METHODS: The inner structures of the temporal bone from CT images of 34 healthy adults were reconstructed. Precise measurement of the facial nerve and its adjacent structures were accomplished by using Able Software 3D-DOCTOR. RESULTS: 3D images of temporal bone structures, including facial nerve, tympanic annulus, cochleariform process, cochlea, semicircular canals, jugular fossa, and carotid artery, were reconstructed. Quantitative data of the facial nerve and its adjacent structures were analyzed, especially the detailed spatial relationships between the facial nerve and the surface of the mastoid process or tympanomastoid fissure. CONCLUSION: 3D reconstruction of CT images clearly displayed the detailed structures of the temporal bone. Quantitative data of the facial nerve and its adjacent structures are very useful for temporal bone surgery.     

HRCT和增强MRI诊断面神经损伤

目的探讨HRCT、增强MR扫描诊断面神经损伤的价值。方法对18例面神经损伤患者行HRCT及增强MR扫描。在Philips EBW工作站行面神经管、面神经CPR,观察颞骨骨折部位、类型、面神经管、面神经受累及走行。采用GE AW 4.5工作站,与健侧相比,观察患侧面神经受累位置、粗细及信号变化。结果 18例中,纵行骨折8例、横行骨折5例、混合型骨折5例。HRCT轴位及CPR显示颞骨骨折18例,其中面神经骨管迷路段受累1例,膝状神经窝受累2例,鼓室段受累4例,膝状神经窝、鼓室段同时受累并发中耳腔积血2例,面神经管鼓室段与中耳腔积血关系密切3例,面神经管骨壁无明显骨折6例。增强MRI及CPR显示面神经损伤18例,其中内听道段受累12例,迷路段受累14例,膝状神经节受累18例,鼓室段受累16例,乳突段受累15例。患侧面神经内听道段、迷路段、膝状神经节、鼓室段、乳突段信号强度比值均高于健侧(P均0.001)。结论 HRCT、增强MRI可评价不同节段面神经损伤,CPR可直观显示颞骨内面神经及骨管损伤。     

A case of chondroblastoma arising from the temporal bone

A 33-year-old male sustained hearing disturbance in the left ear that exacerbated over a period of three years. The patient was referred to the department of otorhynolaryngology for severe stenosis of the left external auditory canal, where neuroimaging study revealed a huge tumor in the left temporal fossa. On first examination, he showed a significant facial nerve paresis and conductive hearing loss. CT scans identified a 4.5×4.5×4.5 cm mass with intralesional calcification and extensive bony destruction in the squamous and petrous parts of the temporal bone and middle cranial fossa floor. MR imaging demonstrated the tumor of heterogenous intensity on T1-and hypointensity on T2-weighted image. The patient underwent gross total resection of the lesion via frontotemporal craniotomy. The bony and ligamentous structures around the temporomandibular joint appeared mostly intact and did not need any reconstructive surgery after tumor resection. Postoperatively the patient's facial nerve paresis showed a transient exacerbation which resolved gradually, while hearing disturbance did not improve. Histological findings of the tumor were consistent with the qualities of chondroblastoma. We should assume chondroblastoma as differential diagnosis when we encounter a temporal bone tumor that is curable by surgical resection.     

Cavernous angioma of the geniculate ganglion

Intracranial extraaxial cavernous angiomas are rare vascular malformations. Their occurrence at the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve within the temporal bone is exceptional. The authors describe a 35-year-old man who developed a slowly progressing facial palsy. Initial cranial MR imaging showed no pathological findings, but 2 years later another MR examination detected a small tumor located at the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve. The tumor was removed via a subtemporal approach. Histological examination revealed a cavernous angioma. Even small cavernomas located at the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve may result in facial palsy. Isolated facial palsy in a young person should be monitored closely using imaging studies even if the initial imaging study is negative. Early decompression of the facial nerve may help to preserve its function.     

Cadaveric Dissections Based on Observations of Injuries to the Temporal Bone Structures following Head Trauma

One hundred temporal bones obtained from forensic autopsies were dissected to expose injured structures. Longitudinal fractures were present in 82%, transverse fractures in 11%, and mixed fractures in 7% of the cases. Facial canal injuries were present in almost half of the bones with longitudinal fractures (36/82), although cuts of the facial nerve stem were rarely encountered. Damages to the facial canal associated with longitudinal fractures were most frequently seen in the region of the geniculum. However, transverse fractures with facial canal involvement (7/11) most frequently occurred in the labyrinthine portion, causing a complete cut of the facial nerve. Injuries to the jugular bulb were also common (21/100) and associated with all types of temporal bone fractures. Observed damages to the auditory ossicles included disconnection of their joints or fractures of the malleus or stapes. Fractures of the incus were not observed. Injuries to the carotid canal were common (52/100), although an injury to the arterial wall was observed in only one specimen. The frequency and nature of damage in temporal bone fractures strictly reflect the type of fracture, especially in terms of facial nerve disorders: the most serious damage is observed with fractures that involve the otic capsule.     

Huge facial nerve schwannoma extending into the middle cranial fossa without facial palsy: case report

The facial nerve schwannoma is a rare tumor and it seldom extends into the middle cranial fossa. The typical clinical presentations are progressive facial paralysis and hearing disturbance. We report here a case of huge facial nere facial nerve schwannoma extending into the middle cranial fossa without facial palsy. A 50-year-old man presented with left hearing disturbance. Neurological examination on admission revealed no deficits except for sensorineural hearing loss. MRI demonstrated a cystic tumor extending into the ddle cral fossa from the petrous bone CT the middle cranial fossa from the petrous bone. CT of the temporal bone showed destruction of the surrounding bone around the geniculate ganglion and invasion of the tumor into the tympanic cavity and internal auditory canal. The intracranial tumor was totally removed and the operative specimen demonstrated that the tumor was a schwannoma. The patient was discharged without neurological deficit. The facial nerve schwannoma extending into the middle cranial fossa without facial palsy is rare and only 4 cases have been reported in the literature. The tumor origin was in the greater superficial petrosal nerve and geniculate ganglion. The symptom is conductive hearing loss caused by the tumor extending into the tympanic cavity. We should bear in mind that there is a also rare type of facial nerve schwannoma manifesting hearing disturbance alone.     

Temporal bone fracture: Evaluation in the era of modern computed tomography

BackgroundTemporal bone fractures (TBFs) are harbingers of high energy head trauma that can result in a variety of significant complications of the auditory, vestibular, nervous, and vascular systems. Multiple cohort studies have identified the incidence and proper evaluation of these fractures. We hypothesize that these have changed with the advent of modern high resolution computer tomography (CT) imaging.MethodsWe performed a retrospective review of all TBFs admitted to an urban level one trauma center between June 1, 2011 and May 31, 2015. A database was compiled including demographics, physical exam findings, imaging performed and results, morphology and directionality of fracture as well as outcomes and follow-up.ResultsOne hundred thirteen patients were identified, representing 4.7% of skull fractures and 35.9% of skull base fractures. Most were subsequent to falls (41.6%) followed by pedestrian vehicular trauma (19.5%). The majority of TBF patients (67.3%) had additional fractures of the skull and 77.9% of TBF patients also had some kind of intracranial hemorrhage. The morphology of TBF and the overall mortality (7.9%) was consistent with previous reports. The incidence of facial nerve paralysis (1.6%), CSF leak (1.7%), and hearing loss (18.6%) were all lower than previously reported. Trauma imaging was able to identify 98.6% of TBF, calling the utility of routine temporal bone CT imaging into question.ConclusionTBFs are less common than they once were and though they still carry a mortality rate similar to previously reported cohorts, the incidence of complications among survivors has dramatically improved. Additionally, modern CT imaging is very capable of identifying these injuries and dedicated temporal bone CT may only be of utility in cases where facial nerve injury or vascular injury is suspected.Level of evidenceEpidemiologic study, Level III.     

Nonoperative management of traumatic facial nerve palsy

Forty-five patients with facial nerve palsy resulting from head injury were treated nonoperatively between 1975 and 1981. Of 31 patients who had polytomography, temporal bone fractures were demonstrated in 29. In 44 of 45 injuries, satisfactory clinical improvement in motor function was noted, including 65% (overall) who showed complete recovery. Fracture direction on polytomography, results of electromyography (performed in ten cases), and time of onset of paralysis were not correlated with outcome. The present findings suggest a limited role for early surgery in closed traumatic facial nerve palsy.     

A reliable radiologic landmark for the facial nerve in axial temporal bone computed tomography scans.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to test the reliability of a radiologic marker in identifying the vertical portion of the facial nerve in axial computed tomography (CT) temporal bone scans. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: At a tertiary care academic center, we used, with a random sample of 25 CT scans, a marker (the "B-line") to identify the facial nerve. The variations in distance from this marker to the facial nerve were measured. RESULTS: This marker, which consists of a tangent line extrapolated from the posterior border of the basal turn of the cochlea, fell within 1 mm of the facial nerve on average. The average distance from the midpoint of the posterior border of the basal turn of the cochlea to the facial nerve was 11 +/- 1 mm. CONCLUSION: This is a very reliable marker for the vertical portion of the facial nerve. SIGNIFICANCE: This marker can be used to rapidly find the facial nerve, even in diseased or postsurgical temporal bones.     

Magnetic resonance imaging of the facial nerve

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the facial nerve was evaluated by studying normal volunteers and patients with diseases of the facial nerve with a 0.3 Tesla permanent-magnet MRI system with special surface coils. The normal MR images were correlated with the anatomy of thin cryosection specimens of fresh cadavers. The seventh nerve was followed from its nucleus in the brainstem through the temporal bone to the parotid gland bed. The entire labyrinth and tympanic portions, as well as the geniculate ganglion, could be shown with appropriate scan planes. Examples of brainstem diseases affecting the facial nerve and nucleus, facial neuromas, parotid tumors involving the facial nerve, and other diseases were studied. MRI is a technique that allows unique evaluation of the entire course of the facial nerve. It produces superior images of the facial nerve with high-contrast resolution. Unlike computed tomography, there is no beam-hardening artifact from the temporal bone or exposure to ionizing radiation and contrast agents. MRI also allows visualization of the main trunks of the facial nerve in the parotid bed not possible with any other imaging technique.     

Temporal bone fractures in children.

Fifty children with temporal bone fractures were treated during a 40-month period. The diagnosis and management of temporal bone fractures in children is reviewed. The author's cases are classified as to longitudinal and transverse fractures, and the figures are presented for age distribution, sex, cause, loss of consciousness, CSF otorrhea, hearing loss, permanent tympanic membrane perforations, and facial nerve involvement. The author has followed a conservative method of management. Permanent impairment was not frequent, although all the patients with transverse fractures suffered total loss of hearing in the involved ear.     

Two cases of the epidermoid on the petrous bone

Epidermoids known as cholesteatomas, are congenital benign tumors and originate in the embryonic ectoderm. They account for 1.3% of all intracranial tumors. They are often found in the cerebellopontine angle and the paraseller region, but rarely in the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Epidermoids of the petrous bone tend to slowly present progressive facial palsy and hearing disturbance. In this article, two cases of epidermoids involving the petrous bone are reported. A 55-year-old male presented left facial palsy, left hearing disturbance and decreased gustation in the left side of the tongue. MRI revealed a non-enhanced mass on the petrous portion of the left temporal bone, and bone-window CT showed bone destruction in the same region (Case 1). A 71-year-old female was aware of left facial palsy and left hearing loss for 15 years. MRI showed a non-enhanced mass on the petrous bone, and bone-window CT demonstrated extensive bone erosion of the petrous bone and the middle cranial fossa (Case 2). In both cases, total removal was performed via the middle cranial fossa approach. Both tumors existed extradurally and had pressed against the genicurate ganglion of the facial nerve. The facial palsy of the former case recovered 12 months after surgery. We discuss the problems of diagnosis and treatment of epidermoids of the petrous bone.     

CT和MRI术前评估颞骨段面神经鞘瘤

目的探讨CT及MR检查术前评估颞骨段面神经鞘瘤的应用价值。方法回顾性分析9例经手术病理证实的颞骨段面神经鞘瘤的患者临床资料,9例患者均接受MR平扫及增强扫描,其中3例同时接受CT平扫及增强扫描。结果 9例面神经鞘瘤患者6例位于左侧,3例位于右侧,病变单独累及迷路段2例,鼓室段1例,乳突段1例;累及迷路段+鼓室段3例,鼓室段+乳突段2例。1例肿瘤与面神经可见分界,余8例均未见明显分界,2例可见乳突及外耳道软组织肿块。CT主要表现为面神经走形区边缘规则或不规则的软组织肿块,伴不同程度不规则或虫蚀状骨质破坏及面神经管增粗,部分可见骨质硬化;MRI表现为T1WI呈等信号,T2WI呈等或稍高信号的肿块影,增强扫描呈明显均匀或不均匀强化。结论 CT及MRI相互结合可准确地显示颞骨段面神经鞘瘤的位置和形态及周围情况,可作为面神经鞘瘤术前评估的首要检查方法。     

Combined therapy with surgery and stereotactic radiosurgery for facial schwannoma: case report

The authors report the successful case of combined therapy using surgery and stereotactic radiosurgery for facial schwannoma in the middle cranial fossa, and discuss the surgical strategy for preservation of facial nerve function. This 27-year-old man presented with a 9-year history of right facial palsy and spasm. CT scan and MR imaging demonstrated a tumor 3 x 3 x 4 cm in size extending to the intradural middle cranial fossa from the petrous bone. After total removal of the intradural tumor, gamma knife radiosurgery was performed for residual tumor in the petrous bone. The marginal dose to the tumor was 12 Gy. Facial spasm disappeared, but facial palsy is unchanged 14 months after the radiosurgery.     

Recent advances in facial nerve surgery

A review of the recent literature on surgery of the facial nerve is presented. Developments in the treatment of hemifacial spasm, nerve grafting, reanimation surgery, and diagnostic testing are described. Reports of facial paralysis following mandibular fractures are included. The roles of brain stem evoked response (BSER) audiometry, electroneuronography, and CT scanning in the evaluation of facial nerve disorders are noted.     

Traumatic intratemporal facial nerve injury: management rationale for preservation of function

A retrospective review of 29 cases of intratemporal facial nerve injuries included 18 temporal bone fractures, 7 gunshot wounds, and 4 iatrogenic complications. Surgical exploration confirmed involvement of the fallopian canal in the perigeniculate region in 14 longitudinal and 3 transverse or mixed fractures of the petrous pyramid. Gunshot and iatrogenic injuries usually occurred within the tympanic and vertical segments of the facial canal and at the stylomastoid foramen. When hearing is salvageable, the middle fossa approach provides the best access to the perigeniculate region of the facial nerve. In the presence of severe sensorineural hearing loss, the transmastoid-translabyrinthine approach is the most appropriate for total facial nerve exploration. Grade I to III results can be anticipated in timely decompression of lesions caused by edema or intraneural hemorrhage. Undetectable at the time of surgery, stretch and compression injuries with disruption of the endoneural tubules often lead to suboptimal results. Moderate-to-severe dysfunction (Grade IV), with slight weakness and synkinesis, is the outcome to be expected from the use of interpositional grafts.