Risk factors for small-for-gestational-age babies: The Auckland Birthweight Collaborative Study

OBJECTIVE: This case-control study determined whether internationally recognized risk factors for small-for-gestational-age (SGA) term babies were applicable in New Zealand. METHODOLOGY: All babies were born at 37 or more completed weeks of gestation in one of three hospitals in Auckland. Cases weighed less than the sex specific 10th percentile for gestational age at birth, and controls (appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA)) were a random selection of heavier babies. Information was collected by maternal interview and from obstetric databases. RESULTS: Information from 1714 completed interviews (844 SGA and 870 AGA) was available for analysis. Computerized obstetric records were available for 1691 of the 1701 women who consented to such access. In a multivariate analysis allowing for sex, gestational age at birth, social class and other potential confounders, mothers who smoked had a significantly increased risk of an SGA baby (adjusted OR 2.41; 95% CI 1.78-3.28), as did primiparous mothers (adjusted OR 1.34; 95% CI 1.03-1.73), mothers of Indian ethnicity (adjusted OR 3.22; 95% CI 1.95-5.30), women with pre-eclamptic toxaemia (adjusted OR 2.42; 95% CI 1.08-5.40) and those with pre-existing hypertension toxaemia (adjusted OR 5.49; 95% CI 1.81-16.71). Mothers of SGA infants were shorter (P < 0.001) and reported lower prepregnancy body weights (P < 0.001) than mothers of AGA infants. The population attributable fraction for smoking suggests that up to 18% of SGA infants born in the ABC Study could be related to maternal smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors associated with SGA births in other countries are also important in New Zealand. Smoking in pregnancy is an important and potentially modifiable behaviour, and efforts to decrease the number of women who smoke during pregnancy should be encouraged.     

Risk factors for overweight in 2- to 6-year-old children in Beijing, China.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of overweight among Chinese preschool children and to explore risk factors of childhood obesity focusing on parental characteristics, feeding practice and lifestyle. METHODS: Data on 930 families with 2- to 6-year-old children in five kindergartens were obtained in a cross sectional study. Families were randomly selected from two of all six urban districts in Beijing, China. Information on parental characteristics, dietary habits, lifestyle habits, and feeding practice was collected by parental self-report questionnaires. The children's stature and weight were measured in light clothing and without shoes. Overweight and obesity were defined according to international cut-off values, as proposed by the International Obesity Task Force. Multivariate regression analysis was used to explore risk factors of child overweight. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of overweight and obesity was 10.7% and 4.2%, respectively, and increased with age. The prevalence of child overweight was 14.1% and 7.5% in obese and non-obese families, respectively. Significant associations were observed between child and parent characteristics for overweight, frequency of eating in restaurant, television hours, and hours of physical activity. Child overweight was associated with parental overweight (Odds Ratio [OR] 2.43, 95% CI 0.78, 6.59), low maternal education level (OR 2.22, 95% CI 1.39, 3.55), food restriction (OR 2.68, 95% CI 1.64, 4.29), and television watching >2h/d (OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.17, 2.09), after adjusting for sex, age, family income and kindergarten (for cluster study design). CONCLUSIONS: Overweight prevalence among Chinese preschool children in Beijing is comparable to some European countries. Prevention strategies should include identified lifestyle risk factors.     

南京城区7岁以下儿童单纯性肥胖症调查

目的为了解南京城区7岁以下儿童单纯性肥胖症流行现状与影响因素.方法采用超过WHO推荐身高别体重参考值的20%且排除继发性肥胖作为单纯性肥胖症的诊断标准,对南京城区11222例7岁以下儿童进行了测查分析.结果单纯性肥胖症检出率为1.76%,较1986年(0.308%)增长了5.7倍,男童检出率明显高于女童(P<0.01).4岁以后肥胖患病率与肥胖程度随年龄增长而增加,6岁组最高,是1岁以内的3.6倍,且重度肥胖占总重度肥胖儿童的55.56%.儿童肥胖初始年龄1岁以内占23.20%,3岁以后占56.41%,这与遗传、饮食、行为因素及运动过少有关.本次调查还发现在托幼机构受到合理膳食管理的肥胖儿童仅占16.82%.结论儿童单纯性肥胖症预防重点应放在学龄前期,不仅家庭要改变肥胖儿童的生活行为模式,而且应加强托幼机构对超重、肥胖儿童的膳食管理.     

Risk factors for carriage of respiratory pathogens in the nasopharynx of healthy children. Ascanius Project Collaborative Group.

OBJECTIVES: To assess risk factors for nasopharyngeal carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis in a large sample of healthy children. METHODS: In this point prevalence survey nasopharyngeal specimens were obtained from 1723 healthy children, ages 1 to 7 years, attending day-care centers or schools in 18 Italian cities. Written questionnaires for obtaining information about the demographics and medical history of the children were completed by the parents in the presence of a pediatrician. RESULTS: The overall carrier rate of respiratory pathogens was 17.9% (S. pneumoniae, 3.5%; H. influenzae, 11.9%; M. catarrhalis, 4.1%). Only 5% of S. pneumoniae strains were penicillin-resistant whereas approximately 40% were erythromycin-resistant. Beta-lactamase production was found in 5.8% of H. influenzae and 88.7% of M. catarrhalis isolates. By multivariate analysis age (< or = 3 years), having older siblings, a history of prolonged full-time day-care attendance and living in a rural area significantly influenced the odds of carrying nasopharyngeal respiratory pathogens, particularly in children ages 1 to 5 years. Sex, breastfeeding, passive smoking and recent upper respiratory tract infections were not significant variables. Antibiotic treatment in the previous 3 months did not affect nasopharyngeal carriage, whereas repeated treatments with a macrolide were associated with carriage of S. pneumoniae. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that there is a strong and long term relationship between exposure to large numbers of children in the first years of life and nasopharyngeal carriage of all respiratory pathogens. In addition antimicrobial restrictive guidelines should be tailored to local microbiologic sceneries.     

Tinnitus in 7-year-old children

The prevalence of tinnitus in children with normal hearing has been reported to be between 6% and 36% and much higher in children with hearing loss. The aim of the present study was to perform an epidemiological, cross-sectional study, on the prevalence of tinnitus in 7-year-old school children ( n=964) and to statistically analyse the relation of tinnitus to gender, noise exposure, intratympanic pressure and hearing parameters. Tinnitus was reported by 12% of the children and in contrast to other reports, hearing parameters, did not correlate to the prevalence of tinnitus and no gender differences were found. Noise induced tinnitus was reported in 2.5% of the children. CONCLUSION: persistent tinnitus in children may have similar causes to that in adults.     

乌鲁木齐市4所幼儿园学龄前儿童单纯性肥胖的影响因素

目的：探讨乌鲁木齐市3～7岁儿童肥胖症的发生率及其影响因素。方法：随机抽取乌鲁木齐市4所城区幼儿园3～7岁儿童1 730名作为研究对象,测量其身高、体重,采用问卷调查相关影响因素,按照身高标准体重法判定肥胖,采用单因素和多因素logistic回归分析影响肥胖的因素。结果：乌鲁木齐市学龄前儿童单纯性肥胖的发生率为7.1%,超重率为13.2%,5岁以上儿童肥胖发生率最高。肥胖发生的危险因素有家族中肥胖人数、母亲的BMI（身体质量指数Body Mass Index）不正常、父亲较少参加运动、家庭不正常的运动和饮食习惯及父母的错误认知。结论：乌鲁木齐市学龄前儿童单纯性肥胖的发生率较高,应尽快采取相应的干预措施,预防肥胖重点应放在学龄前期。     

Risk factors for breakthrough varicella in healthy children.

AIM: To evaluate the risk factors for breakthrough varicella in a follow up study of a cohort of 181 healthy children immunised when aged 9-24 months with a reformulated Oka strain varicella vaccine (SmithKline Beecham Biologicals/Oka). DESIGN: The children were randomised in a double blind manner into one of four groups to receive one of two production lot vaccine batches, at two different titres (high titre, 10(3.9) and 10(4.0) plaque forming units (pfu); low titre (heat exposed), 10(2.7) and 10(2.8) pfu). The overall seroconversion rate after immunisation was 99%. RESULTS: One hundred and sixty-eight patients were available for review after a mean (SD) follow up of 35 (9) months after vaccination. Multivariate analysis indicated that risk factors for breakthrough varicella were household contact with varicella (adjusted odds ratio (OR), 19.89; 95% confidence interval (CI), 18.39 to 21.39), vaccination age of < or = 14 months (adjusted OR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.69 to 2.90), and receiving low titre (10(2.7) pfu) vaccine (adjusted OR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.54 to 2.73). All children who developed breakthrough varicella, had a modified varicella illness, except for three, all of whom had received low titre vaccine. CONCLUSION: The identification of young immunisation age (< or = 14 months) and low titre vaccine as risk factors for breakthrough varicella have important implications for the implementation of varicella vaccination programmes in healthy children.     

Risk factors for asthma in inner city children.

Inner city children have the highest prevalence and the highest mortality rates for asthma in the United States. The purpose of this study was to evaluate sensitization and exposure to common indoor allergens among children aged 3 years to 15 years seen for treatment of asthma at Grady Memorial Hospital, Atlanta, Ga. Eighty children in this study were enrolled in the emergency department and 64 in hospital clinics. Dust from 57 homes, assayed for three indoor allergens (dust mite, cat, and cockroach), revealed similar exposure for asthma and control groups. Sixty-nine percent of the children with asthma had IgE antibodies to dust mite, cockroach, or cat; only 27% of the control subjects were similarly sensitized (p < 0.001). Of 35 children with asthma 21 had both sensitization and significant exposure to the relevant allergen; this was true for only 3 of 22 control subjects (odds ratio, 9.5; p < 0.001). Neither sensitization nor exposure to cat allergen was common in this population. The results show that black children in inner city Atlanta are exposed to high levels of mite and cockroach allergens and that a high proportion of the children with asthma are sensitized to these allergens; the combination of sensitization and exposure is a major risk factor for asthma in this population.     

Risk factors of obesity in preschool children in an urban area in China

To assess risk factors of childhood obesity, we carried out a case-control study in ten kindergartens in Changsha, the capital city in the Chinese province of Hunan, between July 1 and December 31, 2007. Height and weight measurements were obtained from annual physical examinations for children attending these kindergartens. Obesity was defined according to the International Obesity Task Force cutoff for body mass index (BMI). For each obese child, one child with normal BMI, matched by kindergarten class, sex, age (within 3 months), and height (within 3 cm) were chosen as controls. The parents of the study subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire about their children, including perinatal factors, infant feeding, and current lifestyle factors. Univariate analysis was performed first to compare the distribution of risk factors between cases and controls. Conditional logistic regression analysis was used to assess independent risk factors of childhood obesity. A total of 162 subjects (81 pairs of cases and controls) were included in the final analysis. The results showed that the adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for childhood obesity were 8.88 (2.41-32.70), 5.23 (1.24-22.04), 10.96 (2.08-21.64), and 6.72 (1.55-29.12), respectively, for macrosomia, cesarean delivery, early solid foods initiation (<4 months), and fetal musical education. We conclude that macrosomia, cesarean delivery, early initiation of solid foods, and fetal musical education are associated with increased risk of obesity in preschool children in urban China.     

儿童厌食症的危险因素研究

目的 探讨儿童厌食症的危险因素,以降低儿童厌食症的患病率。方法 采用问卷调查方式和病例对照研究方法收集150例厌食症儿童 （病例组）和150例正常儿童 （对照组）的一般资料,采用单因素分析和多因素logistic逐步回归分析研究儿童厌食症的危险因素。结果 单因素分析显示,病例组和对照组在添加辅食月龄、喂养方式、儿童是否喜欢肉食、是否喜欢蔬菜、是否喜欢咸食、是否常进食零食和/或饮料、是否边吃边玩、家长是否要求儿童按时进食等方面的差异有统计学意义 （P < 0.05）。多因素logistic回归分析显示,添加辅食时间晚 （OR=5.408）、常进食零食和/或饮料 （OR=11.813）、喜欢边吃边玩 （OR=6.654）是儿童厌食症的主要危险因素;而喜欢肉食 （OR=0.093）、喜欢蔬菜 （OR=0.272）以及家长要求儿童按时进食 （OR=0.079）是儿童厌食症的保护因素。结论 适时添加辅食、合理膳食、培养儿童正确的饮食和生活习惯可以减少儿童厌食症的发生。     

Risk factors for injury in a 3-year-old birth cohort

The purpose of this study was to identify factors associated with injuries in the first three years of life and to assess their predictive utility. The parents of 918 children (82% of an eligible birth cohort) completed a telephone interview to document injury histories. The occurrence of injury was then linked to previously obtained information characterizing early childhood. Several determinant associations were found for injuries seen by a physician and for those requiring treatment. Maternal factors (single, unemployed, smoking) were dominant in both instances. From these factors, logistic regression models were developed from which adjusted relative risk estimates were derived. The presence of all three maternal factors, as well as the absence of a younger sibling, increases the probability of an injury from 20% to over 60%. These findings may be used to assist in the development of preventive programs by targeting children at increased risk. They also provide a basis for further studies that will permit a better understanding of the causal mechanisms linking maternal factors to preschool injury.     

Overweight and obesity in European children: definition and diagnostic procedures, risk factors and consequences for later health outcome

In this article, information on the definition of obesity in childhood and adolescence, its differential diagnosis and its adverse health effects is provided. This information can be considered as a basis for the evaluation of an obese patient. Review of the international and European literature shows that the co-morbidities of childhood obesity cover a large medical area ranging from secondary hormonal disturbances to orthopaedic problems. Most of them have so far been underestimated. However, the most severe problem of an obese child is his or her psychosocial discrimination. Longitudinal data demonstrate a positive relationship between childhood obesity and increased morbidity and mortality in adulthood. Conclusion Data from the literature are in some respect sparce since they do not allow to calculate the exact prevalence of adverse effects nor to assess the outcome of an obese child when it is successfully reducing the relative amount of body fat.