Estimation of personal exposure to ambient nicotine in daily environment

Summary To evaluate the actual exposure level of nonsmokers to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in their daily life, the exposure level of ambient nicotine was measured with a nicotine personal monitor carried by a nonsmoker. Average exposure levels of nicotine, even in such smoky places as cars, coffee shops and pubs, were less than 45 g/m³. As a result of all-day monitoring, the highest amount of nicotine inhaled in a day was estimated, in this study, to be up to 310 g, equivalent to actively smoking 0.31 ordinary cigarettes.     

Concentrations of nicotine, RSP, CO and CO2 in nonsmoking areas of offices ventilated by air recirculated from smoking designated areas

The exposure of nonsmokers to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) when smoking is relegated to designated areas that are not separately ventilated is of considerable interest. Concentrations of nicotine, respirable suspended particles (RSP), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2) were measured in offices under different conditions of smoking regulation: smoking prohibited; smoking prohibited areas receiving recirculated air from designated smoking areas; smoking and nonsmoking sections of these designated smoking areas. Nicotine was collected by pumping air for periods of 1-8 hr at 1 L/min through sampling tubes containing a styrene divinylbenzene copolymer. RSPs (5 micron cut-off) were measured using an optical side scattering instrument. CO was measured by a direct reading electrochemical analyzer and CO2 by colorimetric detector tubes. Detection of nicotine in nonsmoking office areas that received recirculated air from smoking designated areas required sampling times of 4 hr or more. Nicotine levels in such offices were approximately 1.0 micrograms/m3. RSP, CO and CO2 concentrations were approximately the same in these offices as compared to nonsmoking offices not exposed to recirculated air from smoking areas. Providing a designated but not separately ventilated smoking area appears to be effective in eliminating most components of ETS from nonsmoking office work areas.     

Measurement and analysis of nicotine and other VOCs in indoor air as an indicator of passive smoking

In Finland the Tobacco Act was amended in 1994 to include workplaces. The developed method for estimating passive smoking, or environmental tobacco smoke utilised the widely used measurement of volatile organic compounds in indoor air quality surveys. The method is based on active sorbent sampling, thermal desorption and gas chromatography/mass selective detection (GC/MS) analysis and it has been tested in a chamber and in field conditions. The method can be used simultaneously to measure volatile organic compounds and exposure to tobacco smoke. We recommend nicotine, collected by active sampling, as an indicator for the evaluation of the exposure to environmental tobacco smoke spreading from smoking areas.     

Measurement of environmental tobacco smoke exposure among adults with asthma

Because the morbidity and mortality from adult asthma have been increasing, the identification of modifiable environmental exposures that exacerbate asthma has become a priority. Limited evidence suggests that exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) may adversely affect adults with asthma. To study the effects of ETS better, we developed a survey instrument to measure ETS exposure in a cohort of adults with asthma living in northern California, where public indoor smoking is limited. To validate this survey instrument, we used a passive badge monitor that measures actual exposure to ambient nicotine, a direct and specific measure of ETS. In this validation study, we recruited 50 subjects from an ongoing longitudinal asthma cohort study who had a positive screening question for ETS exposure or potential exposure. Each subject wore a passive nicotine badge monitor for 7 days. After the personal monitoring period, we readministered the ETS exposure survey instrument. Based on the survey, self-reported total ETS exposure duration ranged from 0 to 70 hr during the previous 7 days. Based on the upper-range boundary, bars or nightclubs (55 hr) and the home (50 hr) were the sites associated with greatest maximal self-reported exposure. As measured by the personal nicotine badge monitors, the overall median 7-day nicotine concentration was 0.03 microg/m(3) (25th-75th interquartile range 0-3.69 microg/m(3)). Measured nicotine concentrations were highest among persons who reported home exposure (median 0.61 microg/m(3)), followed by work exposure (0.03 microg/m(3)), other (outdoor) exposure (0.025 microg/m(3)), and no exposure (0 microg/m(3); p = 0.03). The Spearman rank correlation coefficient between self-reported ETS exposure duration and directly measured personal nicotine concentration during the same 7-day period was 0.47, supporting the survey's validity (p = 0.0006). Compared to persons with no measured exposure, lower-level [odds ratio (OR) 1.9; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.4-8.8] and higher-level ETS exposures (OR 6.8; 95% CI, 1.4-32.3) were associated with increased risk of respiratory symptoms. A brief, validated survey instrument can be used to assess ETS exposure among adults with asthma, even with low levels of exposure. This instrument could be a valuable tool for studying the effect of ETS exposure on adult asthma health outcomes.     

Environmental tobacco smoke in an unrestricted smoking workplace: area and personal exposure monitoring.

The objective of this investigation was to determine the extent of areal and day-to-day variability of stationary environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) concentrations in a single large facility where smoking was both prevalent and unrestricted, and to determine the degree of daily variation in the personal exposure levels of ETS constituents in the same facility. The subject facility was a relatively new four-story office building with an approximate volume of 1.3 million ft3. The exchange of outside air in the building was determined to be between 0.6 and 0.7 air changes per hour. Eighty-seven area samples (excluding background) were collected at 29 locations over the course of 6 days of sampling. Locations included offices and cubicles occupied by smokers and nonsmokers, common areas, and the computer and mail rooms. Twenty-four nonsmoking subjects wore personal sampling systems to collect breathing zone air samples on each of 3 days in succession. This generated a total of seventy-two 8-h time-weighted average (TWA) personal exposure samples. In all samples, respirable suspended particulate matter, ultraviolet light-absorbing and fluorescing particulate matter, solanesol, nicotine, and 3-ethenyl pyridine were determined. With the exception of a few locations, tobacco-specific airborne constituents were determined in all samples. Not surprisingly, areas with the highest ETS constituent concentrations were offices and cubicles of smokers. Median and 95th percentile concentrations for all area samples, excluding background, were determined to be 1.5 and 8.7 microg/m3 for nicotine, and 8.2 and 59 microg/m3 for ETS-specific particles (as solanesol-related particulate matter, Sol-PM), respectively. Personal exposure concentrations of ETS components were similar to those levels found in the area samples (median nicotine and Sol-PM concentrations were 1.24 and 7.1 microg/m3, respectively), but the range of concentrations was somewhat smaller. For example, the 95th percentile 8-h TWA nicotine and ETS-specific particle (as Sol-PM) concentrations were 3.58 and 21.9 microg/m3, respectively. Intrasubject variation of daily concentrations ranged from 20% to 60%, depending on the component. Self-reported proximity to smokers was supported by higher ETS concentrations determined from the personal monitors, but only to a modest extent. Although smoking was completely unrestricted inside the main office areas of the facility, ETS levels, either areal or from personal exposure measurements, were lower than those estimated by Occupational Safety and Health Administration to be present in such facilities.     

扩散法被动式挥发性有机化合物个体监测器的研制

研制了一种以单层活性炭颗粒作为吸收介质的被动式挥发性有机化合物个体监测器。空气中挥发性有机化合物依据分子扩散原理传质到采样器中，并吸附到活性炭上。采样后，取出活性炭吸附层，用二硫化碳洗脱，再用气相色谱法定性和定量。对监测器进行了实验室性能评价和现场验证。结果表明，采样器在风速２０～１５０ｃｍ／ｓ，相对温度１０％～８０％，温度－１０～３５℃范围内使用，采样速率分别为６０ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ（苯）、５４ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ（甲苯）、５４ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ（氯仿）和４９ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ（对－二甲苯），相对标准差小于５％。在现场与有泵活性炭管采样相比较，本个体监测器测定空气中挥发性有机化合物的总不确定度分别为１２％（苯）、１２％（甲苯）、２６％（对－二甲苯）和１６％（氯仿），可适用于室内空气污染和个体接触量的监测。     

公共场所和工作场所环境空气中烟草烟雾污染状况的研究

目的 了解北京市东城区公共场所和工作场所环境中烟草烟雾的暴露情况及其影响因素.方法 于2004年1-2月选取北京市东城区14家公共场所和工作场所,采用被动式尼古丁采样器对场所环境空气中的尼古丁水平进行监测.应用多元线性回归方程对影响尼古丁浓度的因素进行分析.结果 14家公共场所和工作场所中的所有采样点均检测到了尼古丁,其浓度中位数为3.01 μg/m3,浓度范围为0.03～28.72 μg/m3.完全禁烟场所检测到的尼古丁浓度中位数最低,而在无禁烟规定的场所中检测到的尼古丁浓度中位数最高.影响室内空气中尼古丁浓度的因素较多,包括禁烟规定、吸烟人数和房屋面积等,其中吸烟人数是最重要的因素.结论 目前,公共场所和工作场所的环境烟草烟雾暴露已成为重要的公共卫生和职业健康问题,吸烟人数对空气中尼古丁浓度的影响最大.     

Simultaneous measurement of urinary total nicotine and cotinine as biomarkers of active and passive smoking among Japanese individuals

Objectives

Measuring urinary cotinine is a popular and established method of biologically monitoring exposure to tobacco smoke. However, the lower detection limit of cotinine often impedes the evaluation of passive (second-hand) smoking and this, together with unconverted nicotine, does not reflect actual levels of exposure. Furthermore, a portion of the Japanese population might have decreased ability to metabolize nicotine. The present study was therefore carried out to validate the simultaneous analysis of total concentrations of free nicotine and cotinine and their glucuronides to determine actual levels of voluntary and involuntary exposure to cigarette smoke.

Methods

Urine samples from 118 Japanese smokers and 117 non-smokers were analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Voluntary and involuntary smoking status was self-reported and workplace smoking restrictions were objectively evaluated.

Results

The integrated sum of all concentrations showed 2.2- and 2.4-fold higher total levels (free and glucuronide) of nicotine and cotinine relative to the free levels. Median (quartiles) of total nicotine and cotinine were 1635 (2222) and 3948 (3512) ng/mL in smokers, and 3.5 (5.3) and 2.8 (4.2) ng/mL in non-smokers. Concentrations of urinary nicotine were higher than those of cotinine in 21 % of smokers and in 54 % of non-smokers. Nicotine and cotinine levels were significantly associated with a smoking habit, as well as being significantly associated with the workplace and home environments of non-smokers.

Conclusions

The present method can monitor voluntary and involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke. Measuring total urinary nicotine levels might be useful for analyzing exposure to cigarette smoke among non-smokers.     

Doses and lung burdens of environmental tobacco smoke constituents in nonsmoking workplaces

This paper models nicotine dose and ultraviolet-absorbing particulate matter (UVPM) alveolar lung burden resulting from exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) for nonsmokers in workplaces where smoking was reported not to occur. Data were obtained from personal monitoring of ETS in 16 U.S. cities [Jenkins R.A., Guerin M.R., Palausky A., Counts R.W., Bayne C.K., and Dindal A.B. Determination of human exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS): a study conducted in 16 U.S. cities. Draft final report by Oak Ridge National Laboratory for Center for Indoor Air Research, Linthicum, MD, 1996a; Jenkins R.A., Palausky A., Counts R.W., Bayne C.K., Dindal A.B., and Guerin M.R. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in sixteen cities in the United States as determined by personal breathing zone air sampling. J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 1996b: 6(4): 473-502.]. This is a continuation of earlier analyses focusing on nonsmokers in smoking workplaces (SWs) [LaKind J.S., Graves C.G., Ginevan M.E., Jenkins R.A., Naiman D.Q., and Tardiff R.G. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in the workplace and the impact of away - from - work exposure. Risk Anal. 1999a: 19(3): 349-358; LaKind J.S., Jenkins R.A., Naiman D.Q., Ginevan M.E., Graves C.G., and Tardiff R.G. Use of environmental tobacco smoke constituents as markers for exposure. Risk Anal. 1999b: 19 (3): 359-373; LaKind J.S., Ginevan M.E., Naiman D.Q., James A.C., Jenkins R.A., Dourson M.L., Felter S.P., Graves C.G., and Tardiff R.G. Distribution of exposure concentrations and doses for constituents of environmental tobacco smoke. RiskAnal. 1999c: 19 (3): 375-390.]. Even though study participants characterized their workplaces as nonsmoking, some individuals reported observing cigarettes in the workplace. Individuals observing six or more cigarettes were excluded from the analysis on the grounds that they were in defacto SWs. Exposure to ETS was lower in nonsmoking than SWs, but even with this exclusion, exposure was not zero. Distributions were selected for each model input, and at least 2000 iterations of the model were made for each dose or lung burden characterization (e.g., for females, for males). In these nonsmoking workplaces (NSWs), neither nicotine nor UVPM concentrations were lognormally distributed. Hence, observed concentrations were used directly via bootstrap sampling (nicotine) or a constant number of times (UVPM) as input to the models. As in SWs, individuals from smoking homes (SHs) experienced greater exposure in NSWs to both nicotine and UVPM than did individuals from nonsmoking homes (NSH; P<0.001 ). The distributions of modeled nicotine dose and UVPM lung burden were highly skewed, with most individuals receiving relatively low exposure to ETS in the workplace. Comparing doses from NSWs modeled here to doses from SWs modeled previously, less difference between smoking and NSWs was apparent in UVPM levels than in nicotine levels. For average exposure, UVPM alveolar lung burdens were approximately 10-fold higher in smoking than NSWs, while average nicotine doses were 20-25 times higher in smoking than NSWs. These findings are in the range observed by other investigators and are partly explained by very low denominators in the ratios (i.e., very low levels experienced in NSWs). For upper bound exposure, the nonsmoking-to-smoking ratios remained about the same for UVPM. For nicotine, the upper bound ratios remained the same for people from NSHs but were halved for people from SHs.     

Development of epidemiologic tools for measuring environmental tobacco smoke exposure

In this study, current weekly environmental tobacco smoke exposure was measured in 53 nonsmoking volunteers. Three exposure assessment tools were used: a passive nicotine monitor; a baseline questionnaire; and a seven-day diary. Exposure episodes were recorded according to location, space ventilation characteristics, number of smokers, number of hours, proximity of smokers, and intensity of environmental tobacco smoke. In Phase 1, various formulas for an environmental tobacco smoke exposure index based on the questionnaires and diaries of 19 volunteers were tested against the nicotine (microgram) collected by the monitor to determine the index providing the best fit. The formula referred to as the hsp (hours x smokers x proximity) index provided the best correlation with log nicotine levels for the questionnaire (r2 = 0.829) and the diary (r2 = 0.900). All episodes of environmental tobacco smoke exposure in all locations were summed over seven days. Each exposure received a weighting according to number of hours (h), number of smokers (s) and proximity of smokers (p). In Phase 2, the hsp index was refined to adjust for social situations with many smokers. In Phase 3, the refined hsp index (hsp*) was used to predict cumulative weekly nicotine collected on monitors worn by 33 new volunteers. All 33 nicotine measurements in the validation set were closely predicted by a simple linear regression model using log nicotine and the hsp* index (r2 = 0.98). The results of this study indicate that relatively simple questionnaires and diaries can be developed to assess current environmental tobacco smoke exposure for epidemiologic studies.     

Field testing of a personal size-selective bioaerosol sampler.

Existing samplers for the collection of bioaerosols have been designed with the aim of maintaining biological stability of the collected material, and in general do not select particles in accordance with international conventions for aerosol sampling. Many have uncharacterised sampling efficiencies and few are designed as personal samplers. If standard personal dust samplers are used for bioaerosols the viability of collected microorganisms may be compromised by dehydration. The objective of this study was to evaluate a novel personal bioaerosol sampler designed to collect the inhalable dust fraction and further subdivide the sample into thoracic and respirable fractions. The new sampler was tested to see whether it enhanced the survival of the collected microorganisms, and was assessed for ease of use in the field and in subsequent laboratory analyses. A number of occupation-related field sites were selected where large concentrations of bioaerosols were to be expected. The prototype sampler was found to be simple to use. Analysis could be carried out with similar efficiency either with all three fractions together for a total count, or separately for size selective data. The sampler performed at least as well as the standard IOM filter method but with the added advantage of size fractionation. The field trials showed that for sampling periods lasting several hours, microorganism survival within the sampler was adequate for culture and identification of the organisms present. This new sampler is now commercially available. In addition to bioaerosol sampling, the principle of size selective sampling using porous foams can be applied to other occupational hygiene problems, and also to indoor air monitoring of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations.     

Assessment of environmental tobacco smoke and respirable suspended particle exposures for nonsmokers in Prague using personal monitoring

Objective: Exposures to respirable suspended particles (RSP) and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) were assessed in Prague, Czech Republic, to determine the range and degree of personal exposure by means of personal monitoring over a 24-h period. Design: Self-reported nonsmokers were randomly selected from a representative sample of the population of Prague. Housewives were recruited into one group, primarily for assessment exposures in the home, and office workers were recruited into a second group for assessment of the contribution from the workplace. Methods: A total of 238 randomly selected nonsmoking subjects collected air samples near their breathing zone by wearing personal monitors for 24 h. Samples collected were analyzed for RSP, nicotine, 3-ethenylpyridine, and ETS particles (using ultraviolet absorbance, fluorescence, and solanesol measurements). Saliva cotinine analyses were also undertaken to confirm the nonsmoking status of the subjects. Results: The most highly exposed subjects in this study were office workers both living and working with smokers. Median time-weighted average exposure concentrations of 60 μg m⁻³ RSP, 16 μg m⁻³ ETS particles, and 1.6 μg m⁻³ nicotine were determined for these subjects, who also had the highest median saliva cotinine level of 2.4 ng ml⁻¹. Housewives living in nonsmoking households were the least exposed subjects in this study, showing levels of 32 μg m⁻³ RSP, 0.17 μg m⁻³ ETS particles, and 0.15 μg m⁻³ nicotine. As based upon median levels of ETS particles and nicotine, no group would potentially inhale or be exposed to more than 10 cigarette equivalents per year (CE/y) and the least exposed would inhale less than 1 CE/y. The most highly exposed (90th percentile levels) nonsmokers in this study, who both worked and lived with smokers, would potentially inhale up to 29 CE/y. Overall, the workplace was estimated to contribute between 45% and 49% of the annual exposure to nicotine and ETS particles, respectively. On the basis of determined saliva cotinine concentrations, a misclassification rate of between 1.7% and 2.5% was calculated. Conclusions: Highest exposures were apparent for office workers both working and living in smoking environments, and our findings suggest a significant contribution to overall ETS particle and nicotine levels from the workplace where smoking takes place. Overall, the rates at which subjects were determined to have misclassified their smoking status in this study were the lowest observed in any of the European cities investigated to date. Clearly, a more sensitive method of analysis for cotinine in body fluids is needed for more accurate determination of the levels expected for nonsmokers. Received: 19 November 1997 / Accepted: 26 February 1998     

Smoking and exposure to tobacco smoke at medium-sized and large-scale workplaces

BACKGROUND: The objective of the present study was to assess the smoking prevalence of workers, the attitudes toward smoking, and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in different work environments. METHODS: A questionnaire survey and indoor air quality (IAQ) measurements including the concentration of gaseous nicotine in indoor air were performed in 10 medium-sized and large-scale workplaces representing industrial, service, and office environments. The questionnaire was distributed to all workers (n=1471) in 10 workplaces. IAQ measurements were performed in 4-7 locations in each workplace. RESULTS: Altogether 1027 (70%) employees, of whom 31% were women, responded to the questionnaire. Prevalence of daily smokers was 28.3% (32.3% for men and 22.9% for women). The prevalence was highest among workers in the service sector (32.7%) and lowest in offices (21.6%). Among smokers, 86% of men and 75% of women smoked inside the building. Exposures greater than one hour to ETS were highest in industry (66.3%) and lowest in services (42.6%). Non-smokers complained more often than the regular smokers about the spreading of tobacco smoke to non-smoking areas, and they felt that workplace smoking was a significant discomfort. Mean concentration of nicotine was highest in service environments (3.0 microg/m(3)) and lowest in offices (0.6 microg/m(3)). CONCLUSIONS: According to the present questionnaire survey and IAQ measurements, smoking habits and exposure to tobacco smoke varied considerably depending on the position of the employees and the type of the workplace.     

低浓度挥发性有机化合物被动式个体采样器的研究

研制了扩散式挥发性有机化合物（ＶＯＣｓ）个体采样器,适用于对环境空气中和非职业性个体接触ＶＯＣｓ的监测。在风速１０～２６０ｃｍ／ｓ,相对湿度为３０％～８０％,温度为１０～３０℃的范围内使用,采样速率分别为苯：２５．７４ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ,甲苯：２５．１６ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ,四氯乙烯：２５．８５ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ,对－二甲苯：８．１６ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ,苯乙烯：６．４７ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ。与主动式活性炭纤维（ＡＣＦ）管采样法比较,本个体采样器测定空气中靶ＶＯＣｓ的总不确定度均在±２５％以内。     

A personal monitoring study to assess workplace exposure to environmental tobacco smoke.

We enrolled 15 nonsmoking volunteers to evaluate the feasibility of measuring personal exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at work and to characterize workplace exposures. During one workshift, we obtained questionnaires on exposure, saliva and urine for cotinine, and personal air samples for respirable particles and nicotine. The levels of cotinine, respirable particles, and nicotine varied widely with self-reports of exposure to ETS, but on average increased with increasing exposure.     

扩散法被动式二氧化氮个体监测器的研制

研制了一种应用分子扩散法原理测量ＮＯ２的个体监测器。用三乙醇胺浸渍的滤纸作为ＮＯ２吸收介质，采样后用Ｓａｌｔｚｍａｎ比色法分析。采样器在温度－１０～３５℃，风速２０～２５０ｃｍ／ｓ，相对温度１０％～８０％的范围内使用，采样速度单面为７４ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ；把壳体改进为双面暴露的采样，采样速度为１５０ｍｌ／ｍｉｎ，相对标准差为１０％。与有泵的采样方法（溶液吸收管和化学发光仪器）相比较，总准确度为±２２％。与日本同类产品相比较，测定结果是一致的。本监测器最小可测浓度为０．０１３ｍｇ／ｍ３（２４ｈ采样），可广泛应用于室内空气污染和个体接触量的监测。     

Evaluation of personal exposure to monoaromatic hydrocarbons

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the personal exposure of members of the general public to atmospheric benzene, toluene, and the xylenes, excluding exposure from active smoking. METHOD: 50 volunteers were equipped with active air samplers for direct measurement of personal exposure to monoaromatic hydrocarbons (MAH) and an activity diary was completed during each sampling period. Exposures were also estimated indirectly by combining activity data with independent measurements of hydrocarbon concentrations in several microenvironments. RESULTS: Personal exposure were generally well in excess of those which would be inferred from outdoor measurements from an urban background monitoring station. A wide range of sources contribute to exposure, with indoor and in car concentrations generally exceeding those measured at background outdoor locations. Environments contaminated with tobacco smoke were among those exhibiting the highest concentrations. Personal exposures determined indirectly from activity diaries/microenvironment measurements were well correlated with those determined directly with personal samplers. Personal 12 hour daytime exposures to benzene ranged from 0.23-88.6 ppb (mean 3.81 ppb), with 12 hour night time exposures of 0.61-5.67 ppb (mean 1.94 ppb) compared with an annual average concentration of 1.18 ppb at the nearest suburban fixed site monitoring station. The excess of personal exposure over fixed site concentrations was greater for benzene and toluene than for the xylenes. CONCLUSION: A wide range of sources contribute to personal exposures to monoaromatic hydrocarbons with exposure duration being as important a determinant of total exposure as concentrations. Exposures generally exceed those estimated from concentrations measured by background fixed point monitors. Microenvironment sampling combined with activity diary information can provide satisfactory estimates of personal exposure to these compounds.

 

     

The German Environmental Survey 1990/92 (GerES II): sources of personal exposure to volatile organic compounds

In the framework of the second German Environmental Survey carried out in the Western part of Germany in 1990/91 (GerES IIa) 113 adults aged 25-69 years were selected at random from the total study population of about 2500 to investigate personal exposure to about 70 volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Each subject wore a diffusive badge-type sampler for 1 week. The VOCs determined included alkanes, aromatics, aliphatic halocarbons, terpenes, and oxygen-containing compounds. Multivariate regression analysis was carried out to determine and quantify the major sources of personal exposure to various VOCs. In this paper, results are given for benzene, and C8- and C9-aromatics. Being subject to environmental tobacco smoke was found to be the most important determinant of benzene exposure, but automobile-related activities such as driving a car or refuelling, were also associated with significantly increased levels of benzene. The major determinant of C8- and C9-aromatics concentrations was occupational exposure. Emissions from paints, lacquers, newspapers, magazines and print-works were also important contributors to C8-aromatics exposure. Renovation, painting and smoking were associated with a significant increase of the exposure to C9-aromatics.     

Elimination of cotinine from body fluids: disposition in smokers and nonsmokers.

We have evaluated differences in the elimination of cotinine, a major nicotine metabolite, in smokers who quit smoking and never-smokers who were exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) under controlled conditions. The mean biological half-life of cotinine in urine, collected from the nine smokers was 16.5 +/- 1.2 h, in never-smokers exposed to ETS, 27.3 +/- 1.9 h. Differences in the mode of uptake and absorption of nicotine and possible differences in nicotine metabolism may play roles in the clearance rate differences between smokers and nonsmokers.     

Relationship between environmental tobacco smoke and urinary cotinine levels in passive smokers at their residence

Studies of the health effects of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) using measured air concentrations are subject to bias. Cotinine, a nicotine metabolite detected in urine, has been recommended as a quantitative measure of nicotine intake and thus as a marker for ETS exposure in humans. The aim of this study was to correlate home indoor ETS levels with passive smokers' urinary cotinine levels. The urinary cotinine concentrations of 57 non-smoking women who spend >19 h a day at home and the nicotine levels in their living room air were measured over a period of 24 h. Nicotine and urinary cotinine levels were analyzed using GC/MS and HPLC/UV, respectively. In addition, information was collected regarding the smoking habits of the subjects' families. A significant correlation was found between the nicotine levels in indoor air and the urinary cotinine to creatinine ratio of the passive smokers. The smoking habits of the subjects' family members were also correlated to the urinary cotinine levels of the passive smokers.