Avoidance of bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Common bile duct (CBD) injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy appears to have a higher incidence than during open cholecystectomy. This may be a function of inadequate instruction, inadequate caution, or inexperience, or may represent an inherent flaw in laparoscopic exposure. The aim of this study was to identify several steps in laparoscopic exposure of the gallbladder, cystic duct, and Calot's triangle to minimize the risk of surgical disorientation and CBD injury. A review of the first 180 laparoscopic cholecystectomies from the author's series was performed. Maneuvers that provided optimal exposure of the critical anatomy were culled from the video record. These maneuvers were (1) routine use of a 30 degree forward oblique viewing telescope, (2) firm cephalic traction on the fundus of the gallbladder to reduce redundancy in the infundibulum of the gallbladder and best expose the cystic duct, (3) lateral traction on the infundibulum of the gallbladder to place the cystic duct perpendicular to the CBD, (4) dissection of the cystic duct at the infundibulum of the gallbladder, and (5) routine fluoroscopic cholangiography. If these steps do not provide the surgeon with comfortable anatomic orientation, the procedure should be converted to open cholecystectomy.     

Routine or selected intraoperative cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy?

Intraoperative cholangiography can be helpful in cases in which the anatomy is obscured, unsuspected stones are discovered, or anatomic anomalies of surgical importance are found. There is a difference between open and closed laparoscopic cholecystectomy. It is more difficult to locate the common bile duct during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. During this procedure, the anatomy is distorted due to the extreme traction at the infundibulum. With a short cystic duct, the common bile duct can become "tented" and simulate the appearance of the cystic duct. Ductal injuries may be avoided by knowing where the clips should be placed in relation to the ductal system and by obtaining information about the intact display of the distal and proximal ductal system. The image can be observed immediately by using a modern fluoroscopic system, and permanent documentation can be obtained. We attempted intraoperative cholangiography in 415 cases and were successful in 90%. We strongly recommend the routine use of intraoperative cholangiography.     

A safe and secure technique of cystic duct catheterization.

An easily fabricated, small-caliber, flare-tipped polyethylene catheter was used for transcystic duct cholangiography in 385 patients. A modified cystic duct clamp and a Potts-Smith scissors have expedited the intubation. The catheter has proved to be a versatile tool during biliary surgery, being used in different technical maneuvers. Its value as a transcystic duct drain has been demonstrated in a selected group of patients.     

The "hidden cystic duct" syndrome and the infundibular technique of laparoscopic cholecystectomy--the danger of the false infundibulum

Background: The “classical” biliary injury usually involves misidentification of the common bile duct as the cystic duct. The purpose of this study was to determine if the method of cholecystectomy, specifically the “infundibular technique,” might be a contributing factor in this injury.

Study Design: Twenty-one operative notes of patients who were referred with injury to the common bile duct were examined. Notes were classified as to informativeness. Patient and operative variables potentially related to injury were searched for.

Results: Inflammation was the main patient variable associated with injury. The main operative variable was that in most of the injuries the cystic duct was isolated and divided as the first step in the procedure. Often the operative note contained a statement indicating that the surgeon believed that the “cystic” duct (actually the common bile duct) was emanating from the infundibulum of the gallbladder and that this was the anatomic rationale for identification of the cystic duct. In no case was the triangle of Calot completely dissected before injury.

Conclusions: The cystic duct may be hidden in some patients having laparoscopic cholecystectomy, especially in the presence of inflammation. This may lead to the deceptive appearance of a false infundibulum that misleads the surgeon into identifying the common duct as the cystic duct. Biliary injury is more likely when cystic duct identification is made by relying solely on the appearance of the junction of the cystic duct with the infundibulum of the gallbladder, and this technique should be abandoned.     

Exposure for laparoscopic cholecystectomy dissection adversely alters biliary ductal anatomy

Background

Exposure for open cholecystectomy entails lateral, caudal traction on the gallbladder infundibulum, which results in opening the angle between the cystic and hepatic ducts. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC), as initially described, is done with cephalad traction on the gallbladder. We hypothesized LC exposure technique narrows the angle between the cystic and hepatic ducts, placing them at increased risk of injury.

Methods

Twenty-three patients had routine LC. Cystic duct cholangiography (IOC) was done with a flexible 5-Fr catheter via a percutaneous introducer placed anterior to the gallbladder. Exposure of Calot’s triangle was maintained with cephalad traction on the gallbladder fundus. IOC was repeated after allowing the organ to assume the anatomic position. The cholangiograms were inspected for significant differences, and the angle of the cystic to the hepatic duct (CDHD) was measured by a blinded radiologist.

Results

The mean angle of the cystic to hepatic duct was 30? ± 19? in the IOCs taken with cephalad traction on the gallbladder fundus vs 59? ± 22?,P < 0.001, in the cholangiograms taken without traction. A filling defect at the cystic-hepatic duct junction was present in 39% of IOC taken with traction vs none without traction. The intrahepatic ducts were seen in all films without traction, whereas the intrahepatic ducts were not visualized in 13% of IOCs taken with traction.

Conclusions

From these data we conclude (1) extrahepatic biliary ducts may be at increased risk of injury during LC because of the exposure technique and (2) imaging bile ducts in the anatomic position may convey misleading information about the relative location of important structures. Optimal exposure for dissection of Calot’s triangle should utilize a second clamp on the infundibulum with lateral, caudal traction.     

The utilization of cystic duct cholangiography

The patient records at two hospitals were reviewed to ascertain the incidence of unsuspected common duct stones and to evaluate the patterns of utilization of routine and selective intraoperative cystic duct cholangiography. The incidence of unsuspected common duct stones discovered only by cystic duct cholangiography was 4.3 per cent. Unnecessary common duct exploration was performed on 5.3 per cent of patients undergoing routine cystic duct cholangiography because of false-positive cholangiograms. The use of routine and preexploratory cystic duct cholangiography was significantly different at the two hospitals studied. Choledochotomy without preexploratory cystic duct cholangiography resulted in unnecessary common bile duct explorations in 44 per cent of patients. Although routine cystic duct cholangiography will identify unsuspected common duct stones, it is associated with an equal incidence of unnecessary common duct exploration. Preexploration cholangiography is an essential procedure which diminishes unnecessary choledochotomy and facilitates accurate demonstration of biliary tract pathology.     

Cholecystcholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: cholecystcholangiography or cystic duct cholangiography.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is being used more frequently in the treatment of symptomatic cholelithiasis. The procedure as originally described was performed with cystic duct cholangiography. An alternate technique of performing cholangiography is cholecystcholangiography. Because of the objections that have been voiced concerning direct gallbladder injections namely, reliability of the technique, quality of the studies, and the risk of forcing stones into the common bile duct this study was performed. Subjects were 25 consecutive patients who underwent cholecystcholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. A standard technique was developed and used. Studies were graded from 0 to 5 depending upon quality with 5 being the best and 0 the worst. A 5 consisted of visualization of all of the biliary tract structures and the duodenum and a 0 consisted of visualization of only the gallbladder. Acceptable studies (graded 3, 4, or 5) were obtained in 20 patients (80%). An inability to obtain an acceptable study could usually be determined prior to contrast injection. Accordingly there would be no time delay in proceeding directly to cystic duct cholangiography. In our patients, 48% had stones in the gallbladder smaller than the caliber of the cystic duct. Based upon the results of this study we believe that cholecystcholangiography is the technique of choice for intraoperative cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. In patients in whom this technique is not feasible the surgeon should proceed directly to cystic duct cholangiography. There was no added risk to the patient when cholecystcholangiography was performed. There was a benefit in terms of the ease of the procedure and the performance of the procedure over cystic duct cholangiography. The determination of ductal anatomy prior to cystic duct dissection may be important in minimizing the risk of ductal injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.     

What's right when the gallbladder's left? A case report

During laparoscopic cholecystectomy for cholelithiasis in a 40-year-old woman, we came upon a case of incidentally discovered left-sided gallbladder (LSG). Two anatomic variants of LSG are known: (a) "true LSG," in which, according to Gross, an accessory gallbladder originates from the left hepatic duct (LHD), the right embryonic bud is readsorbed, and the cystic duct joins either the CBD from the left or the LHD directly. Otherwise, a normal right-sided gallbladder adheres to the inferior left hepatic lobe, and the cystic duct joins the CBD from the right side (as in our case); (b) gallbladder under the fourth hepatic segment, medial to a right-sided round ligament, probably resulting from a prenatal obliteration of the right umbilical vein. Left-sided gallbladder is a paraphysiologic condition that when identified before surgery, must be studied by CT or MRI, when incidentally discovered during surgery must be promptly recognized by the surgeon, who must be aware of the unpredictable confluence of the cystic duct into the CBD. The following operative precautions are useful for avoiding a lesion of the CBD: The surgeon should start dissection of Calot's triangle as close as possible to the gallbladder margin, prepare and clip the cystic duct as close as possible to the infundibulum, and a 30 degrees angled telescope. If in doubt, the surgeon should perform an intraoperative cholangiography.     

Präoperative Diagnostik vor laparoskopischer Cholezystektomie Gibt es eine Indikation zur routinemäßigen i.v.-Cholangiographie?

In a retrospective study including 163 patients we investigated the necessity of i.v. cholangiography in preoperative routine diagnostic workup prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy. We evaluated the evidence of i.v. cholangiography concerning the anatomy of the biliary system, the evidence of common bile duct or cystic duct stones and the influence on the further therapeutic procedure. While the common bile duct could be demonstrated in 96.3%, the cystic duct could be visualized in only 54.6%. One out of two patients with a short cystic duct was identified. Stones in the gallbladder were recognized in 72.4% of cases, while only two out of three patients with common bile duct stones were diagnosed. In nine cases a deep junction of the cystic duct was found, but there was no influence on further operative procedure. Thus we found no improvement after routine use of i.v. cholangiography concerning the evidence of common bile duct stones or avoidance of intraoperative lesions of the common bile duct. The routine use of i.v. cholangiography prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy is therefore not justified.     

Cholecystocholangiography vs cystic duct cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Intraoperative cholangiography performed during laparoscopic cholecystectomy provides an exact picture of the biliary anatomy. It may prevent iatrogenic bile duct injury and detect unsuspected common duct stones. Laparoscopic cannulation of the cystic duct can be difficult and time-consuming. We therefore evaluated the simpler technique of cholecystocholangiography by direct puncture and filling of the gallbladder with contrast medium. This technique was compared with cystic duct cholangiography in a prospective controlled trial of 69 patients. Cystic duct cholangiography (n=38) showed significantly better results than cholecystocholangiography (n=31) with optimal visualization of the biliary tree in 29 cases (76%) and seven cases (22%), respectively. The failure rate was 8% and 52%, respectively. Delineation of the cystic duct junction is important in order to prevent bile duct injury. The anatomy in this region was clearly delineated in 34 cases (89.5%) using cystic duct cholangiography but only in 11 cases (35.5%) with cholecystocholangiography. Cystic duct cholangiography revealed unsuspected common duct stones in three cases; however, choledocholithiasis was missed by cholecystocholangiography in at least two patients. Cystic duct cholangiography is clearly the optimal technique. In situations of unclear anatomy in which safe dissection of the cystic duct is not possible, cholecystocholangiography remains a useful alternative.     

Cystic duct cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

At present, there is no consensus regarding the routine use of intraoperative cholangiography during cholecystectomy. We describe a reliable technique for performing cystic duct cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Using this technique, we were able to cannulate the cystic duct in 97% of patients, completely visualize the biliary tree and duodenum in 93% of patients, and identify unsuspected choledocholithiasis in 3% of patients. Treatment options for the management of choledocholithiasis demonstrated by cholangiograms during laparoscopic cholecystectomy include conversion to an open cholecystectomy and common duct exploration, or endoscopic sphincterotomy and common duct stone extraction following laparoscopic cholecystectomy.     

Value of Intravenous Cholangiography prior to Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy

We performed a retrospective study on 163 patients for evaluation of the benefit of intravenous cholangiography prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Radiographic evaluation of the various areas of the biliary system was classified regarding resolution of anatomic structures: well detailed (excellent), impaired image but reliable interpretation possible (good), insufficient contrast with limited assessment (poor), no reliable judgment possible (insufficient). The common bile duct could be described as “good” in 96.3%, whereas the cystic duct could be described as “good” in only 54.6%. Concrements of the gallbladder were recognized in 72.4%, and common bile duct stones were diagnosed in only two of three patients. A distal junction of the cystic duct was found in nine cases, but there was no influence on the following operative procedure. Only one of two patients with a short cystic duct was identified. We found no improvement after routine use of intravenous cholangiography concerning the evidence of common bile duct stones or the avoidance of lesions of the common bile duct. Hence routine use of intravenous cholangiography prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy is not justified.     

腹腔镜超声辅助下复杂类型的腹腔镜胆囊切除术

目的：评估腹腔镜超声在复杂的腹腔镜胆囊切除（LC）术中避免胆道损伤及胆总管结石残留的作用。方法:104例LC因肝外胆系解剖变异,胆囊管真实性不确定,疑有胆总管结石或胆道损伤,三角区粘连或炎症,急性或萎缩性胆囊炎等被界定为复杂的LC患者,借助腹腔镜术中超声检查（LUS）显示的胆总管下端,肝外胆管与胆囊壶腹,胆囊管之间的解剖关系施行LC。结果：在LUS辅助下顺利完成复杂的LC85例,19例因LUS提示的潜在胆道损伤危险,胆总管下段结石,及疑有胆道损伤而中转开腹手术。结论：通过LUS显示的肝外胆管,并在术野中胆囊管,胆囊壶腹的参照下,可了解肝外胆系诸结构之间的解剖关系,由此避免胆道损伤,LUS还可发现隐匿的胆总管结石,LUS是复杂LC术中有效的辅助手段。     

胆囊切除术中经胆囊管造影1569例临床分析

目的探讨经胆囊管造影在单纯性胆囊切除术中的价值。方法回顾分析本院在1991年1月-2004年12月间1569例单纯性胆囊切除术中常规经胆囊管造影胆管结石的发生率。结果1023例无胆总管探查指征，经术中胆囊管造影51例，阳性49例，经探查证实有结石，546例有胆总管相对探查指征，经胆囊管造影158例阳性，151例探查证实。结论单纯性胆囊切除术中常规经胆囊管造影可发现隐匿性胆总管结石，能有效减少胆管残余结石，减少胆道损伤。     

Clip migration causes choledocholithiasis after laparoscopic cholecystectomy

The migration of surgical clips after laparoscopic procedures was first reported in 1992, but such instances are extremely rare. We herein demonstrate a case of a migrated metal clip, which had been applied originally to the cystic duct, but thereafter had moved to the common bile duct. This clip caused choledocholithiasis in a patient 1 year after a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. A 63-year-old man underwent a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. During the operation, the inflamed cystic duct was divided accidentally, and three clips were applied immediately. The patient complained of upper abdominal pain from postoperative day 8. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography demonstrated bile leakage from the cystic duct, but showed no clips or choledochal stones. The patient complained of severe upper abdominal and back pain 1 year after the operation. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography showed a metal clip in the common bile duct and choledochal stones above the clip. The clip and the cholesterol stones were removed using a basket catheter. Three clips applied to the cystic duct should have been removed because of the necrosis in the remaining cystic duct. Thereafter, the clip may have migrated through the stump of the cystic duct into the lower part of the common bile duct. This clip seems to have later caused choledocholithiasis resulting from stagnation of the bile flow. Bile leakage after an operation seems to increase the risk of clip migration. Regardless of the primary lesion, a careful follow-up evaluation is necessary for patients demonstrating complications.     

Bile duct injuries due to unwarranted duct catheterization during cholangiography (prevention and treatment)

Attention is drawn to bile duct injuries resulting from unwarranted duct catheterism during cholangiography both for a presumed cystic duct, which turns out not to be one, and for a true cystic duct downstream of an aberrant duct which unfortunately is only detected later. The importance is stressed of access to the cystic duct after cautious dissection, extended to the gallbladder, has detected it up to the vent and ruled out the existence of an aberrant duct. There are several potential options available for the treatment of such ductal lesions, analysing their impact on the parenchyma. The surgeon should not entrust the patient's safety solely to the contribution of cholangiography. Recognition of mistreatment may come too late for effective remedial measures to be taken, particularly in those injuries which are not amenable to conservative treatment.     

One Thousand and Six Consecutive Laparoscopic Intraoperative Cholangiograms

Intraoperative cholangiography was successfully performed in 1,000 out of 1,006 attempts in 1019 consecutive cholecystectomies. There were 783 chronic, 95 acute, 61 fibrotic, 27 gangrenous and 40 cases of hydrops of the gallbladder in those laparoscopic cholecystectomies performed. Unsuspected common duct stones were identified in 5% of the patients. There were no injuries resulting from intra-operative cholangiography performed via the cystic duct. In this large series, routine cholangiography was thought to be helpful in the prevention of common bile duct injuries and the establishment of abnormal anatomy. In non-acute cholecystitis, intraoperative cholangiography is necessary due to the importance of abnormal anatomy verification. The technique of laparoscopic cholecystectomy differs greatly from that of open technique, and, therefore, routine intraoperative cholangiography is strongly advised.     

腹腔镜胆囊管残端部分开放联合胆道造影在胆囊管结石治疗中的应用

目的探讨胆囊管残端部分开放联合胆道造影在胆囊管结石治疗中的临床应用价值。方法2010年2月～2012年12月,对55例胆囊管结石行四孔法腹腔镜胆囊切除术。全麻,术中明确“三管”关系后夹闭胆囊管近侧端,剪开远侧部分胆囊管管壁,钝性挤压远端,挤出可能残留结石直至清亮胆汁流出,自胆囊管开放口置管行术中胆道造影,判断有无结石残留。术后观察腹部症状体征、肝功能指标,常规行B超复查,必要时行MRCP检查,明确有无胆囊管结石残留或继发胆总管结石残留。结果55例手术均获成功。术中经胆囊管残端开放钝性挤压,15例有残留小结石挤出。术中胆道造影,1例发现继发胆总管结石残留,多次反复挤压取石失败,术后第3日行ERCP＋EST取石成功,余54例无结石残留。术后2例不明原因上腹疼痛,肝功能、B超及MRCP检查均无异常,予以对症解痉治疗后腹痛缓解,余均顺利康复。结论对胆囊管结石行腹腔镜胆囊切除术时,采用胆囊管残端开放法,通过钝性挤压胆汁溢出,冲出可能残留结石,辅以经胆囊管残端插管胆道造影,及早发现胆囊管结石残留或继发胆总管结石残留,增加腹腔镜胆囊切除术的安全性。     

Carcinoma of the cystic duct protruding into the common bile duct: Report of a case

We report herein the case of 65-year-old man in whom a diagnosis of primary carcinoma of the cystic duct was made on the basis of Farrar's criteria. The patient was admitted with upper abdominal pain, and although there was no evidence of jaundice or a palpable mass, there was tenderness in his right upper quadrant. Carcinoma of the cystic duct was suspected on the basis of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging findings. Cholecystectomy with resection of the bile duct and lymph node resection was performed, and percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography revealed a filling defect in the common bile duct (CBD). The tumor was found to have arisen from the cystic duct and demonstrated papillary growth into the CBD intraluminally through the orifice of the cystic duct. Microscopically, the tumor was identified as papillary adenocarcinoma with invasion limited to the subserosal layer of the cystic duct. There were no signs of nodal metastasis.     

Kumar versus Olsen cannulation technique for intraoperative cholangiography: a randomized trial

Background

There is resistance to routine intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) during cholecystectomy because it prolongs surgery and may be experienced as cumbersome. An alternative instrument may help to reduce these drawbacks and lower the threshold for IOC. This trial compared the Kumar cannulation technique to the more commonly used Olsen clamp for IOC (KOALA trial; Dutch Trial Register NTR2582).

Methods

Patients undergoing elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy were randomized between IOC using the Kumar clamp and the Olsen clamp. Primary end points were the time that the IOC procedure took and its perceived ease as measured on a visual analog scale from 0 (impossible) to 10 (effortless). To detect a difference of 33 % in IOC time, a total sample size of 40 patients was required.

Results

Fifty-nine patients were randomized. Nine were excluded because of conversion to open cholecystectomy before the IOC procedure. Twenty-eight patients underwent IOC with the Kumar clamp and 22 with the Olsen clamp. The success rate was 23 (82.1 %) of 28 for the Kumar clamp and 19 (86.4 %) of 22 for the Olsen clamp (p > 0.999). The mean IOC time was 10 min 27 s ± 6 min 17 s using the Kumar clamp and 11 min 34 s ± 7 min 27 s using the Olsen clamp (p = 0.537). Surgeons graded the ease of the Kumar clamp as 6.8 ± 2.7 and the Olsen clamp as 6.8 ± 2.1 (p = 0.977).

Conclusions

IOC using the Kumar clamp was neither faster nor easier than using the Olsen clamp. Both clamps facilitated IOC in just over 10 min. Individual surgeon preference should dictate which clamp is used.