妊娠期糖尿病的孕期管理与妊娠结局的分析

目的　探讨妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)孕期管理与妊娠结局的关系。方法　比较妊娠期糖尿病孕妇82例与正常对照组82例的妊娠结局,包括孕产妇并发症、剖宫产率、早产率、胎儿生长迟缓(FGR)、巨大儿发生率、围产儿死亡率及新生儿病率等。82例GDM孕妇中包括经治疗者67例和未经治疗者15例。结果　GDM组的孕产妇并发症、围产儿死亡率及新生儿病率与正常对照组相比无差异,剖宫产率、早产率、巨大儿发生率与正常对照组相比有差异,尤其未经系统治疗者发生率高。结论　GDM孕妇经过及时诊断,加强管理,用饮食疗法或胰岛素治疗有效控制血糖,适时终止妊娠,可有效降低母婴并发症的发生。     

Large-for-gestational-age newborns in women with insulin-treated gestational diabetes under strict metabolic control

OBJECTIVE: To assess the influence of strict metabolic control in women with insulin-treated gestational diabetes on the risk of large-for-gestational-age (LGA) newborns, the frequency of obstetrical complications and fetal outcome. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, 875 women were screened for gestational diabetes mellitus with a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) between weeks 24 and 28 of gestation. The study group (n = 162) consisted of women with insulin-treated gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and the control group (n = 713) of women with normal glucose tolerance (NGT). In the women with diabetes, strict adjustments of fasting glucose levels to 90 mg/dl and 130 mg/dl postprandially were achieved with insulin administration. RESULTS: No increased risk for LGA newborns was observed in women with GDM and good metabolic control (16.7% vs. 12.3%; p = 0.1). In women with NGT, maternal prepregnancy BMI was significantly higher in those who delivered LGA newborns than in those who gave birth to newborns below the 90th percentile [27.2 kg/m(2) (5.0) vs. 24.4 kg/m(2) (5.6); p = 0.006], whereas there was no influence of maternal BMI on birth weight of newborns in women with GDM. There was no difference between the two groups with respect to maternal birth traumata and fetal outcome, except for plexus palsy which occurred in three GDM women with macrosomic newborns. CONCLUSION: Strict metabolic control and surveillance in women with insulin-treated GDM seems to attenuate the risk for LGA newborns, diabetic fetopathia, and the influence of maternal BMI on fetal growth.     

Prevention of perinatal morbidity by tight metabolic control in gestational diabetes mellitus

In a prospective controlled trial, we studied the effect of tight metabolic control on the outcomes of 102 gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) pregnancies compared with outcomes of 102 matched nondiabetic control pregnancies. Women with GDM were treated to achieve and maintain a blood glucose concentration of less than 130 mg/dl at 1 h after breakfast. Treatment consisted of a diet low in oligosaccharides and fat and, if necessary, once daily insulin. By the end of gestation, 88 of the 102 women with GDM received insulin at a mean dose of 18 U/day. Duration of insulin therapy ranged from 3 to 32 wk with a median of 11 wk. Perinatal outcome of GDM pregnancies under this management equaled that of control pregnancies. The full spectrum of excess morbidity from GDM was prevented, and normal distribution of birth weight and normal rates of macrosomia, dystrophy, hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, hyperbilirubinemia, fetal acidosis, and low Apgar scores were achieved. No mortality was observed. In addition to the two main study groups, we also studied a third group of 24 women with GDM whose treatment lasted less than or equal to 5 wk due to late diagnosis. This suboptimally treated group demonstrated a significant (P less than .05) increase of macrosomia and umbilical artery acidosis compared with the well-treated GDM group. The study reported herein demonstrates that excess mortality and morbidity typically observed in GDM can be prevented by early institution of tight metabolic control, which required insulin in 86% of our patients.     

Ethnic differences in perinatal outcome of gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: Despite the high rates of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) among certain Pacific Islander and Asian ethnic groups in the U.S., little is known about the risk for adverse perinatal outcomes in these populations. We sought to examine ethnic differences in perinatal outcome among Asian and Pacific-Islander women with GDM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A retrospective review of all women referred to the largest outpatient GDM program in the state of Hawai'i from 1995 to 2005 was conducted. Patients of Native-Hawaiian/Pacific-Islander, Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, and Caucasian ethnicity were included (n = 2,155). Treatment of all patients consisted of an outpatient education class, dietary management, self-monitoring of blood glucose, and insulin instruction (if indicated). Demographics, maternal and neonatal characteristics, and delivery information were evaluated. RESULTS: Neonates born to Native-Hawaiian/Pacific-Islander mothers and Filipino mothers had 4 and 2 times the prevalence of macrosomia, respectively, compared with neonates born to Japanese, Chinese, and Caucasian mothers. These differences persisted after adjustment for other statistically significant maternal and fetal characteristics. Ethnic differences were not observed for other neonatal or maternal complications associated with GDM, with the exception of neonatal hypoglycemia and hyperbilirubinemia. CONCLUSIONS: Significant ethnic differences in perinatal outcomes exist across Asian and Pacific-Islander women with GDM. This finding emphasizes the need to better understand ethnic-specific factors in GDM management and the importance of developing ethnic-tailored GDM interventions to address these disparities.     

Early postpartum metabolic assessment in women with prior gestational diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To present the results of early postpartum metabolic assessment in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), to determine predictive factors for subsequent diabetes, and to investigate the association of postpartum glucose tolerance with other components of the metabolic syndrome. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 788 women were evaluated 3-6 months after a GDM pregnancy. A 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed. Cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, blood pressure, BMI, and body fat distribution were assessed. Clinical and obstetric history, baseline variables at the diagnosis of GDM, metabolic control during pregnancy, and index pregnancy outcome were compared in women with diabetes and women without diabetes (American Diabetes Association [ADA] criteria) after pregnancy. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to ascertain independent predictors of subsequent diabetes. Correlation coefficients were assessed between postpartum glucose tolerance and lipid levels, blood pressure, BMI, and body fat distribution. RESULTS: According to ADA criteria, 588 (74.6%) women were normal, 46 (5.8%) had impaired fasting glucose, 82 (10.4%) had impaired glucose tolerance, 29 (3.7%) had both impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance, and 43 (5.4%) had diabetes. Prepregnancy obesity, recurrence of GDM, gestational age at diagnosis of GDM, glucose values in the 100-g OGTT, number of abnormal values in the 100-g OGTT, fasting C-peptide levels in pregnancy, C-peptide/glucose score in pregnancy, insulin requirement in pregnancy, 3rd trimester HbA1c levels, and macrosomia differed significantly in women with subsequent diabetes. Independent predictors of postpartum diabetes were prepregnancy obesity, C-peptide/glucose score during pregnancy, and the number of abnormal values in the 100-g diagnostic OGTT. The area under the postpartum glucose curve was positively associated with BMI, waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, triglycerides, and systolic and diastolic blood pressures. CONCLUSIONS: Low C-peptide/glucose score during pregnancy together with prepregnancy obesity and severity of GDM (number of abnormal values in the 100-g diagnostic OGTT) are independent predictors of subsequent diabetes. Our data suggest that regardless of obesity and severity of GDM, a beta-cell defect increases the risk of postpartum diabetes. The association of postpartum glucose tolerance with triglyceride levels, blood pressure, obesity, and regional distribution of body fat suggests that postpartum glucose intolerance anticipates a high-risk cardiovascular profile that comprises other risk factors besides diabetes.     

Pathogenesis and management of gestational diabetes mellitus

The definition of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is carbohydrate intolerance of varying degrees of severity, with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. GDM develops due to insulin resistance during pregnancy and impaired insulin secretion. The problems of GDM are increasing the risk of adverse pregnancy outcome and development of diabetes later in life in the mother. To prevent adverse perinatal outcome, it is important to screen for glucose intolerance as early in pregnancy as possible, and to control maternal hyperglycemia intensively. To reduce the risk of future diabetes in the mother, patient should control weight and increase physical activity.     

Effect of selective screening for gestational diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the percentage of pregnant women who would not be screened and the percentage of women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) who would possibly remain undiagnosed if the American Diabetes Association's (ADA's) new selective screening recommendations are used rather than universal screening for GDM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Since 1987, the University of Michigan Health System has performed universal screening for GDM. In 1997, the ADA recommended that women having all four of the following characteristics need not be screened: age < 25 years, not members of an ethnic/racial group with a high prevalence of diabetes, normal body weight, and no family history of diabetes. We studied a random sample of the 25,118 deliveries at the University of Michigan between 1987 and 1997 to determine the prevalence of these four characteristics in our obstetric population. We also studied the prevalence of these four characteristics in 200 women who were diagnosed with GDM in the Endocrine Testing Unit and delivered at the University of Michigan between 1987 and 1997. RESULTS: Approximately 10-11% of women who delivered possessed all four low-risk characteristics and would not have been screened for GDM according to the new ADA recommendations. Only 4% of women (5 of 141) with GDM who delivered and for whom data on all four characteristics were reported possessed all four low-risk characteristics and would not have been screened. CONCLUSIONS: If the new ADA selective screening recommendations are used, few women with GDM will be missed (4%) but approximately 90% of pregnant women will still need to be screened for GDM.     

妊娠期糖尿病患者产前胰岛素泵短期强化综合干预的效果观察

目的：探讨妊娠期糖尿病（gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM）患者实施产前胰岛素泵短期强化综合干预对血糖控制和妊娠结局的影响。方法2010年6月-2013年6月符合研究标准的GDM产前胰岛素强化治疗的64例患者随机分成综合干预组和常规护理组各32例。常规护理组患者给予常规护理干预,包括饮食与运动指导,相关知识宣教,胰岛素泵治疗的优越性介绍,胰岛素泵安装与护理以及并发症的防范。综合干预组患者在常规护理干预的基础上,给予短期强化综合干预,包括按照应用上肢功率计运动,举办沙龙活动和实施胰岛素泵个体化技术培训。观察两组患者遵医行为,血糖控制情况,记录低血糖、酮症酸中毒和皮肤感染发生情况,以及妊娠高血压综合征、早产、巨大儿等妇科、儿科、产科并发症情况。结果综合干预组遵医行为显著优于常规护理组（P＜0.05）,两组血糖达标时间差异无统计学意义,但综合干预组日均胰岛素用量显著低于常规护理组（P＜0.05）。综合干预组产妇低血糖症状发生率显著均低于常规护理组（P＜0.05）,两组产妇妊娠高血压综合征、早产及胎儿窘迫等差异无统计学意义。两组新生儿并发症差异无统计学意义。结论 GDM产前胰岛素泵短期强化治疗综合干预显著增强患者的遵医行为,有助平稳控制产前高血糖,可减少胰岛素用量,有效控制产妇低血糖症状发生。     

妊娠期糖尿病的孕期管理与母婴结局的关系

目的探讨妊娠期糖尿病的孕期管理与母婴结局的关系。方法选择2008年1月至2011年9月产检分娩确诊妊娠期糖尿病的患者118例。将孕期进行系统管理、血糖控制良好的孕妇78例列为干预研究组,将未进行有效规范管理、血糖控制不佳的孕妇40例列为干预对照组。同期随机抽取100例血糖正常的分娩孕妇作为正常对照组。分析比较3组孕妇的剖宫产率、妊娠并发症、巨大儿发生率等母婴结局关系。结果干预研究组的胎膜早破、早产、妊娠期高血压、胎儿窘迫、巨大儿、剖宫产率均低于干预对照组,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05),而干预研究组与正常对照组比较无统计学差异(P>0.05)。结论做好妊娠期糖尿病孕期系统规范化管理,可以有效控制血糖,明显降低母婴并发症的发生,改善母婴结局,甚至达到正常孕妇水平。     

High blood pressure before and during early pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE—While women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are more likely to display features of the metabolic syndrome, including hypertension, in the years after delivery, it is unclear whether these components are also present before pregnancy. We examined the relationship between blood pressure (BP) measured before and during early pregnancy (<20 weeks) and the risk of GDM in a nested case-control study.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—Case (n = 381) and control (n = 942) subjects were selected from a cohort of women delivering between 1996 and 1998 and screened for GDM between 24 and 28 weeks’ gestation. GDM was defined by the National Diabetes Data Group criteria. BP and covariates data were obtained by review of the medical records. Women were categorized according to BP levels recommended by the American Heart Association outside of pregnancy: <120/80 mmHg (normal), 120–139/80–89 mmHg (prehypertension), and ≥140 and/or ≥90 mmHg or use of antihypertensive medications (hypertension).RESULTS—During early pregnancy, women with prehypertension had a small increased risk of GDM (odds ratio [OR] 1.56 [95% CI 1.16–2.10]), and women with hypertension had a twofold increased risk of GDM (2.04 [1.14–3.65]) compared with women with normal BP after adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, gestational week of BP, BMI, and parity. Similar results were seen among the subset of women with BP levels measured before pregnancy (1.44 [0.95–2.19] for prehypertension and 2.01 [1.01–3.99] for hypertension).CONCLUSIONS—Clinicians should be aware that women presenting with hypertension may warrant early screening or intervention to prevent GDM.Type 2 diabetes and hypertension are both components of the metabolic syndrome and commonly occur together in individuals. A recent study of initially healthy middle-aged women found that blood pressure (BP) predicted the development of incident type 2 diabetes independent of BMI and other known diabetes risk factors (1). Several studies have shown that women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are more likely to have features of the metabolic syndrome, including high BP, in the years after delivery (2–5). It is unclear whether elevated BP before or during early pregnancy is associated with the development of GDM.Crowther et al. (6) showed that treatment of mild-to-moderate levels of glucose intolerance in midpregnancy effectively reduced both perinatal and maternal complications. Therefore, identifying additional variables that predict the development of GDM may help identify women who would benefit from early screening and, if needed, early treatment of pregnancy hyperglycemia to prevent perinatal complications. Because BP is a vital sign that is measured at each medical visit, it would be an easy and inexpensive clinical characteristic that could be used to identify women at risk of GDM. We therefore evaluated the relationship between BP before and during early pregnancy (<20 weeks’ gestation) and risk of GDM in a nested case-control study among women who delivered singleton live infants at a large U.S. group practice prepaid health plan and received uniform screening and a standardized diagnostic test for GDM.     

两种食物交换份法用于妊娠期糖尿病的比较

目的通过观察妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）孕妇采用食物交换份法（FEL）和基于血糖负荷概念的食物交换份法（GL＋FEL）的接受程度、饮食行为改变,孕期血糖,体质指数和围生期结局的影响,比较两种方法在GDM孕妇治疗中的作用。方法选取2008年5月—2009年3月在我院产科门诊确诊为GDM的单胎孕妇80例,分为实验组42例和对照组38例。实验组采用（GL＋FEL）法,对照组采用FEL,通过多种方式,实施至分娩结束,比较两种方法治疗前后孕妇体质量改变,空腹血糖（FBG）,餐后2h血糖（2hPBG）和糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）的变化及围生期结局。结果实验组FBG、2hPBG和HbA1c与对照组比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。两组孕妇孕期体质量总增加量和每周体质量增加量间差别有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;两组新生儿出生体质量间差别无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;但巨大儿发生率实验组低于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论GL＋FEI对GDM孕妇的饮食干预效果优于单FEL,对孕妇在孕期控制血糖、体重,防止围生期的不良反应,促进母婴安全,具有积极的促进作用。     

Gestational diabetes, pregnancy hypertension, and late vascular disease

The complexity of the several pathogenic pathways that cause hypertension and vascular disease and the prolonged interval that appears to predate clinical morbidity have hindered inquiry into the association between GDM and vascular disorders. As a forme fruste of later type 2 diabetes, GDM-affected gravidas are identified as at risk of diabetes-related atherosclerosis, glomerular disruption, and pathogenic retinal angio-genesis. That GDM is evidence for underlying chronic conditions such as dysregulation of innate immune response that, independent of the diabetic state, produces vascular disease is difficult state, produces vascular disease is difficult to assert with the present published literature. Cross-sectional studies of patients with established gestational hypertension or preeclampsia are ambiguous as to the possible pathogenic effect of insulin resistance. Cohort studies initiated in early and mid-pregnancy show evidence that both gestational hypertension and preeclampsia may be more prevalent in gravidas with greater insulin resistance. The association of gestational glucose intolerance with gestational hypertension appears to be independent of obesity and ambient glycemia but explained in part by insulin resistance. Late pregnancy preeclampsia is associated with elevated mid-pregnancy BMI, blood pressure, fasting glucose and insulin, urate, and C-reactive protein, suggestive of metabolic and immune dysregulation. GDM appears to be associated with overexpressed innate immune response, which, in turn, is associated with vascular dysfunction and vascular disease. Among women with GDM, markers of insulin resistance do not appear to correlate with hypertension in short-term cohort studies. However, when non-GDM subjects are compared with subjects with GDM, postpregnancy studies do show an associated with vascular dysfunction and vascular disease. Among women with GDM, markers of insulin resistance do not appear to correlate with hypertension in short-term cohort studies. However, when non-GDM subjects are compared with subjects with GDM, postpregnancy studies do show an association of insulin resistance with both inflammatory dysregulation and vascular dysfunction. Cohort studies that have used population-based pregnancy databases consistently identify a clinically significant association of both gestational hypertension and preeclampsia with later hypertensive disorders. Associations with coronary artery disease or stroke are less consistent, requiring further investigation. Preventing the evolution of diabetes and lipid and immune dysregulation of the metabolic syndrome has become a silent public health issue because of the epidemic of childhood and early adulthood obesity and the opportunity at hand to treat insulin resistance by behavioral and pharmacological interventions. However, limited available literature highlights the need for long-term cohort studies of women with well-characterized metabolic and vascular profiles during pregnancy and decades later. Our present knowledge suggests that screening for GDM provides an opportunity of pregnancy outcome improvement. Limited studies of diabetes prevention in at-risk patient groups suggest that we may have the opportunity to reduce the risk of later diabetes. Additional investigation is required to determine if interventions that prevent or postpone diabetes also delay the onset of vascular disease.     

妊娠期糖尿病合并妊娠高血压综合征相关因素的临床分析

目的探讨妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）孕妇发生妊娠高血压综合征（PIH）相关因素及妊娠结局.方法对196例妊振期糖尿病孕妇进行分析,根据有无妊娠高血压综合征,将孕妇分为非妊高征组和妊高征组进行比较.结果妊高征组服糖后1 h、2 h、3 h血糖,难产率和新生儿窒息率均高于非妊高征组.结论妊娠期糖尿病孕妇易并发妊高征,糖尿病合并妊高征是引起糖尿病孕妇难产和新生儿窒息发生的重要因素,产前须加强妊娠期糖尿病的管理与监护,合理治疗,减少妊高征的发生.     

Heterogeneity of maternal characteristics and impact on gestational diabetes (GDM) risk—Implications for universal GDM screening?

Objective To study the incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in relation to phenotypic characteristics and gestational weight gain (GWG) among women at high risk for GDM.

Materials and methods This is a secondary analysis of a GDM prevention study (RADIEL), a randomized controlled trial conducted in Finland. 269 women with a history of GDM and/or a pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI)?≥?30 kg/m² were enrolled before 20 weeks of gestation and divided into four groups according to parity, BMI and previous history of GDM. The main outcome was incidence of GDM.

Results There was a significant difference in incidence of GDM between the groups (p?2 showed the highest incidence (35.9%). At baseline they had fewer metabolic risk factors and by the second trimester they gained more weight. There was no interaction between GWG and GDM outcome and no significant difference in the prevalence of diabetes-associated antibodies.

Conclusion Despite a healthier metabolic profile at baseline the non-obese women with a history of GDM displayed a markedly higher cumulative incidence of GDM. GWG and the presence of diabetes-associated antibodies were not associated with GDM occurrence among these high-risk women.

• Key message

• Despite a healthier metabolic profile at baseline the non-obese women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus display a markedly higher cumulative incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus.

     

妊娠期糖尿病营养干预对围生期预后的影响

目的探讨妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）营养干预对围生期预后的影响。方法对62例GDM孕妇进行营养干预，并与62例正常孕妇的妊娠结局比较。结果62例GDM孕妇中有55例（88．71％）经营养干预后血糖控制良好，7例（11．29％）需要营养干预加胰岛素治疗方能将血糖控制在正常范围内。经营养干预及临床治疗，62例GDM孕妇，除早产发生率及剖宫产率高于非糖尿病孕妇组外（P〈0．05）．妊高征、羊水过多、巨大儿、胎儿生长受限（FGR）、胎儿窘迫、新生儿窒息、感染及新生儿黄疸等发病率与非糖尿病妊娠期组比较差异无显著性意义（P〉0．05）。结论加强对GDM营养干预，能有效控制GDM孕妇的血糖，降低围生期不良结局的发生。     

Gestational diabetes identifies women at risk for permanent type 1 and type 2 diabetes in fertile age: predictive role of autoantibodies

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to evaluate the predictive value of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), diabetes-associated autoantibodies, and other factors for development of clinical diabetes later in life. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In this case-control study the presence of autoantibodies was studied in 435 women with GDM and in healthy matched control subjects. The need for exogenous insulin during GDM was recorded. In the GDM group, the mean follow-up period was 5.7 years and in the control group 6.1 years. RESULTS: Among the subjects with GDM, 20 (4.6%) developed type 1 diabetes and 23 (5.3%) developed type 2 diabetes, whereas none of the control subjects became diabetic. Two-thirds of those who developed type 1 diabetes tested positive initially for islet cell antibodies (ICAs), whereas 56% of them had autoantibodies to GAD (GADAs) and 38% to the protein tyrosine phosphatase-related IA-2 molecule. Only 2 of the 23 women who presented later with type 2 diabetes tested positive for autoantibodies. According to multivariate analysis, initial age < or =30 years, the need for insulin treatment for GDM, and antibody positivity for ICAs and GADAs were associated with increased risk for clinical type 1 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Pregnancy seems to identify women who are at risk of developing diabetes later in life. About 10% of Finnish women with GDM will develop diabetes over the next 6 years; nearly half of them develop type 1 diabetes and the other half type 2 diabetes. Age < or =30 years, the need for insulin treatment during pregnancy, and positivity for ICAs and GADAs confer a high risk of subsequent progression to type 1 diabetes in women affected by GDM.     

超声在妊娠期糖尿病孕妇胎儿检查中的应用

随着医疗诊断技术和人们生活水平的提高,妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)的发病率呈逐年上升趋势。通过超声对胎儿生长发育等方面的监测,可评估GDM对围生儿的影响,为GDM诊断、治疗提供一种更加直接、有效、无创的方法。     

Prediabetes and perinatal mortality

OBJECTIVE: The association between gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and perinatal outcome is largely based on case series and retrospective studies that found an increased risk of perinatal mortality and stillbirth as the onset of diabetes approached. Our objective was to assess the relationship between latency to diabetes and perinatal outcome of prediabetic pregnancies in a contemporary population of women with adult-onset diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A population of 403 diabetic women from two recruitment sites completed a pretested questionnaire. RESULTS: Details of 1,181 pregnancy outcomes were obtained. This comprised 1,024 live births, 22 stillbirths, and 8 early neonatal deaths. Crude analysis suggested a relationship between time to diabetes (latency) < or =20 years and both perinatal death and stillbirth: odds ratio (95% CI), 2.41 (1.17-4.95) and 2.15 (0.93-4.98). Generalized additive modeling revealed a nonlinear relationship between the variables time to diabetes, and maternal age and perinatal outcome. Final logistic regression analysis was then performed for the outcomes perinatal death and stillbirth, with maternal age as a second-degree polynomial, year of birth as a continuous variable, and time to diabetes dichotomized < or =20 years to diagnosis and >20 years. This final analysis documented a significant association between time to diabetes < or =20 years and both perinatal death (4.06 [1.79-9.36]) and stillbirth (3.35 [1.25-9.05]). CONCLUSIONS: There appeared to be an increased risk of perinatal death and stillbirth in pregnancies occurring in the last 20 years before the diagnosis of diabetes.     

妊娠期糖耐量异常对妊娠及围生儿的影响

【目的】研究妊娠期糖耐量受损 (GIGT)和妊娠期糖尿病 (GDM )对孕妇及围生儿的影响。【方法】收集GIGT 5 0例 ,GDM 38例及正常对照组 5 0例 ,对孕妇并发症及围生儿并发症进行比较。【结果】GIGT和GDM组的妊高症、巨大儿、胎儿窘迫、手术产率较对照组显著增高 (P <0 .0 5 ) ,相应的新生儿低血糖、新生儿窒息、新生儿高胆红素血症显著增加 (P <0 .0 5 )。【结论】娠期糖耐量异常对孕妇及围生儿有明显影响 ,且与糖耐量异常程度相关。     

Use of insulin pumps in pregnancies complicated by type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes in a multiethnic community.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the use of insulin pump therapy in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) or type 2 diabetes in pregnancy and persistent hyperglycemia despite multiple injections of subcutaneous insulin. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: As part of a service audit, deliveries to women with diabetes at a single South Auckland hospital were reviewed from 1991 through 1994. Glycemic control was estimated by the mean of self-recorded and laboratory postprandial glucose concentrations. In a nested case-control study, pregnancies complicated by GDM/type 2 diabetes with use of an insulin pump were compared with those without insulin pump therapy and peak insulin requirements of 100-199 units/ day, matched for ethnicity and type of diabetes. RESULTS: A total of 30 of 251 Polynesian, European, and South Asian women with singleton pregnancies complicated by insulin-requiring GDM/type 2 diabetes used an insulin pump. An additional two women with high insulin requirements discontinued pump therapy. None of the women with GDM/type 2 diabetes experienced severe hypoglycemia, whereas 79% of the women had improved glycemic control within 1-4 weeks. Mothers using a pump had greater insulin requirements (median maximum 246 vs. 130 units per day) and greater weight gain (10.6 vs. 5.0 kg). Their babies were more likely to be admitted to the Special Care Baby Unit but were neither significantly heavier nor experienced greater hypoglycemia than control subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Insulin pump therapy seems to be safe and effective for maintaining glycemic control in pregnancies complicated by GDM/type 2 diabetes and requiring large doses of insulin.