The Situated Management of Safety during Risky Sport: Learning from Skydivers’ Courses of Experience

The aim of this study was to determine how risks associated with skydiving can be managed within acceptable limits. Using “Course-of-Action” theory described by Theureau, four experienced skydivers viewed recordings of their jumps, from preparation to landing, to elicit their perceptions of these experiences. The sequences dealing with safety concerns were then extracted. Data analysis revealed seven typical sequences of activity to manage safety, labeled “To check the material during preparation,” “To feel prepared and safe for the jump as the plane gains altitude,” “To use the time of freefall,” “To deploy the parachute,” “To fly safely,” “To ensure a safe landing” and “To organize the structured packing of the parachute.” These results showed how the skydivers mitigated safety risks through a heightened awareness of critical elements in the unfolding jump activity and sequences of distributed and timed concerns and actions. The implications for accident analysis, prevention and education for training in risky sports activity are provided.

Key points

• The skydivers’ activity could be broken down into seven safety sequences.
• Each safety sequence was defined by specific involvements and directions at the very moment of the situation.
• Skydivers’ safety concerns are embedded in the succession of two types of temporal horizon organization: immediate and short-term.

Key words: Skydiving, situated action, activity, meaning, training, involvement, subjective experience, education     

Young Athletes’ Motivational Profiles

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between motivational characteristics and dispositional flow. In order to accomplish this goal, motivational profiles emerging from key constructs within Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory were related to the dispositional flow measures. A sample of 413 young athletes (Age range 12 to 16 years) completed the PMCSQ-2, POSQ, SMS and DFS measures. Cluster analysis results revealed three profiles: a “self-determined profile ”characterised by higher scores on the task-involving climate perception and on the task orientation; a “non-self-determined profile”, characterised by higher scores on ego-involving climate perception and ego orientation; and a “low self-determined and low non-self-determined profile ”which had the lowest dispositional flow. No meaningful differences were found between the “self-determined profile ”and the “non-self-determined profile ”in dispositional flow. The “self-determined profile ”was more commonly associated with females, athletes practising individual sports and those training more than three days a week. The “non-self-determined profile ”was more customary of males and athletes practising team sports as well as those training just two or three days a week.

Key points

• The “self-determined profile ”was characterized by high task orientation, high task-involving climate perception and was more commonly associated with females, athletes practising individual sports and those training more than three days a week.
• The “non-self-determined profile ”was characterized by high ego orientation, high ego-involving climate perception and was more customary of males and athletes practising team sports as well as those training two or three days a week.
• Both profiles revealed a moderate tendency toward dispositional flow, with no significant differences between the two profiles.
• The “low self-determined and low non-self-determined profile ”had low scores on all of the variables in the study.

Key words: Self-determination, motivational climate, goal orientation, flow     

A Comparison of Mental Strategies During Athletic Skills Performance

The current study examined the effects of performance enhancement techniques (PET’s) on motor skill performance. Specifically, one hundred fifty college student volunteers (Men = 41; 27.3% and Women = 109; 72.6%) were randomly assigned to one of the nine conditions (Cond): Cond 1 and 2, simultaneous, externally verbalized self-talk or imagery (e.g., participants were instructed to say “aim, back, birdie ”or engaged in imagery out loud while putting); Cond 3 and 4, delayed externally verbalized self-talk or imagery (e.g., participants were instructed to say “aim, back, birdie ”or engaged in imagery out loud before putting); Cond 5 and 6, simultaneous, internally verbalized self-talk or imagery (e.g., participants were instructed to say “aim, back, birdie ”or engaged in imagery silently to oneself while putting); Cond 7 and 8, delayed internally verbalized (e.g., participant were instructed to say “aim, back, birdie ”or engaged in imagery silently to oneself before putting); and Cond 9, no instruction control group. All participants were asked to perform a golf-putting task. Results indicated that participants who implemented several (PET’s) increased their putting accuracy across overall difference score evaluations F (8, 141) = 4.01, p < 0.05 when compared to a no instruction control condition. Follow-up analyses indicated that participants who reportedly engaged in ten hours or less of athletic activities per week preferred self-talk strategies F (2, 119) = 4.38, p < 0.05 whereas participants who endorsed ten hours or more of athletic activity per week preferred imagery strategies F (2, 25) = 5.27, p < 0.05.

Key Points

• Mental imagery and self-talk strategies are implemented by athletes in order to regulate arousal, reduce maladaptive behaviors, reconstruct negative thoughts, and to increase one’s concentration and focus.
• Results of the current study suggest that participants who engaged in several performance enhancement techniques exhibited enhanced performance on a golf putting task when compared to participants in a control condition.
• Participants who endorsed limited athletic familiarity and activity (e.g., ten hours or less) preferred self-talk practice whereas participants who endorsed higher ratings scores of athletic familiarity and activity (e.g., ten hours or more) preferred imagery strategies.
• The results of this study demonstrate the flexibility of Performance Enhancement Techniques (e.g., imagery v. self-talk, internal v. external, simultaneous v. delayed) and how they can be implemented to help an athlete reach his or her full potential.

Key words: Sport psychology, performance enhancement techniques, self-talk, arousal regulation, mental imagery, attention     

Proximal and distal factors associated with dropout versus maintained participation in organized sport

The purpose of this study was to investigate a large number of determinants of sport dropout among French adolescents, in order to reveal proximal and distal factors of dropout. 261 current and 106 dropout athletes (M = 14.6) participated to the study. The data were collected by a questionnaire assessing demographic information, athletes’ perceptions on their experience, their parents, teammates and coach. t-tests revealed that current and former athletes were distinct on numerous variables. A discriminant function analysis showed three proximal predictors of sport dropout (perceived value of the activity, satisfaction, parents’ investment). Subsequent regression analyses showed that perceived value was positively predicted by perceived competence, the value of the activity for teammates, coach’s investment, and negatively by conflicts of interest and goal conflict with teammates; satisfaction was positively predicted by the coach’s mastery climate, but negatively predicted by conflicts of interest and goal conflict with teammates and with the coach; parents investment was negatively predicted by the goal conflicts with them. This study permitted to discriminate between proximal and more distal psychological antecedents of the dropout behaviour. It brings information relative to the possible targets of interventions aiming at preventing dropout from organized sport.

Key points

• Geographical, financial and time constraints did not predict dropout from organized sport.
• The value of the activity, the level of satisfaction of the athlete, and the perceived parental investment, were identified as proximal predictors of maintained participation.
• Athletes’ perceptions about themselves (perceived competence, conflict of interest) or their coach (investment, climate, goal conflicts), peers (value, goal conflicts) or parents (goal conflicts), seem to act as distal factors.

Key words: Psychology, public health, motivation, athletes.     

Mood Changes Following Golf Among Senior Recreational Players

Golf has been recommended as a relatively risk-free form of exercise for an ageing population. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of playing a round of golf on mood states in recreational players. Ageing male golfers (N = 34; Age: M = 68.7, SD = 5.4 years) completed a mood measure immediately before and after an 18-hole round of golf. Distance walked per game was measured using a pedometer. Results indicate reported scores on Anger, Depression, and Fatigue increased and Vigor reduced following the game. However, it should be noted that although there was an increase in unpleasant mood states, this should be seen in the context of the overall mood profile, which was positive. Pedometer results indicated golfers walked a mean distance of 10.21 km (± 1.11). Results show participants of this age-group engaged in a meaningful exercise session and that mood scores deteriorated following play. Findings from the present study show that elderly golfers experienced mood profiles following golf similar to younger athletes following competition. For golf to be recommended as an activity for promoting physical activity among an aging population, the player’s ability to regulate unpleasant mood states should be considered. Future research should investigate the effects of experiencing negative mood states following golf on motivation to participate.

Key Points

• Findings show ageing male golfers engaged in a meaningful exercise session and that mood scores deteriorated following play.
• Mood profiles before and after playing golf for elderly golfers were similar to younger athletes following competition.
• For golf to be recommended as an activity for promoting physical activity among an aging population, the player’s ability to regulate unpleasant mood states should be considered.

Key words: Health, affective states, exercise, emotion, fitness     

Detraining-Related Changes in Left Ventricular Wall Thickness and Longitudinal Strain in a Young Athlete Likely to Have Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

One of the diagnostic criteria in order to differentiate between physiological and pathological left ventricular hypertrophy is the wall thickness reduction after at least 3-month detraining period, which is considered a marker of the athlete’s heart. This report describes detraining-related regression of LV hypertrophy and improvement in myocardial deformation in a junior athlete likely to have hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

Key points

• Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in adolescent athletes can be discovered by 12-lead ECG
• Physical training is an important trigger for the clinical presentation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
• Reverse LV remodeling (wall thickness reduction) with detraining is a common echocardiographic finding in athletes with physiological hypertrophy
• This report demonstrates that reverse remodeling can also be found in adolescent athletes likely to have hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Key words: Athlete’s heart, detraining, echocardiography, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, left ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial function, strain echocardiography.     

No Additional Benefit of Repeat-Sprint Training in Hypoxia than in Normoxia on Sea-Level Repeat-Sprint Ability

To assess the impact of ‘top-up’ normoxic or hypoxic repeat-sprint training on sea-level repeat-sprint ability, thirty team sport athletes were randomly split into three groups, which were matched in running repeat-sprint ability (RSA), cycling RSA and 20 m shuttle run performance. Two groups then performed 15 maximal cycling repeat-sprint training sessions over 5 weeks, in either normoxia (NORM) or hypoxia (HYP), while a third group acted as a control (CON). In the post-training cycling RSA test, both NORM (13.6%; p = 0.0001, and 8.6%; p = 0.001) and HYP (10.3%; p = 0.007, and 4.7%; p = 0.046) significantly improved overall mean and peak power output, respectively, whereas CON did not change (1.4%; p = 0.528, and -1.1%; p = 0.571, respectively); with only NORM demonstrating a moderate effect for improved mean and peak power output compared to CON. Running RSA demonstrated no significant between group differences; however, the mean sprint times improved significantly from pre- to post-training for CON (1.1%), NORM (1.8%), and HYP (2.3%). Finally, there were no group differences in 20 m shuttle run performance. In conclusion, ‘top-up’ training improved performance in a task-specific activity (i.e. cycling); however, there was no additional benefit of conducting this ‘top-up’ training in hypoxia, since cycle RSA improved similarly in both HYP and NORM conditions. Regardless, the ‘top-up’ training had no significant impact on running RSA, therefore the use of cycle repeat-sprint training should be discouraged for team sport athletes due to limitations in specificity.

Key points

• ‘Top-up’ repeat-sprint training performed on a cycle ergometer enhances cycle repeat-sprint ability compared to team sport training only in football players.
• The addition of moderate hypoxia to repeat-sprint training provides no additional performance benefits to sea-level repeat-sprint ability or endurance performance than normoxic repeat-sprint training.
• ‘Top-up’ cycling repeat-sprint training provides no significant additional benefit to running RSA or endurance performance than team sport training only, and therefore running based repeat-sprint interventions are recommended for team sport athletes.

Key words: Hypoxic training, simulated altitude, top-up training, team sport     

Mechanisms of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury in Sports Activities: A Twenty-Year Clinical Research of 1,700 Athletes

The mechanisms of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are still inconclusive from an epidemiological standpoint. An epidemiological approach in a large sample group over an appropriate period of years will be necessary to enhance the current knowledge of the ACL injury mechanism. The objective of the study was to investigate the ACL injury occurrence in a large sample over twenty years and demonstrate the relationships between the ACL injury occurrence and the dynamic knee alignment at the time of the injury. We investigated the activity, the injury mechanism, and the dynamic knee alignment at the time of the injury in 1,718 patients diagnosed as having the ACL injuries. Regarding the activity at the time of the injury, “competition ”was the most common, accounting for about half of all the injuries. The current result also showed that the noncontact injury was the most common, which was observed especially in many female athletes. Finally, the dynamic alignment of “Knee-in & Toe- out ”(i.e. dynamic knee valgus) was the most common, accounting for about half. These results enhance our understanding of the ACL injury mechanism and may be used to guide future injury prevention strategies.

Key points

• We investigated the situation of ACL injury occurrence, especially dynamic alignments at the time of injury, in 1,718 patients who had visited our institution for surgery and physical therapy for twenty years.
• Our epidemiological study of the large patient group revealed that “knee-in & toe-out ”alignment was the most frequently seen at the time of the ACL injury.
• From an epidemiological standpoint, we need to pay much attention to avoiding “Knee-in & Toe-out ”alignment during sports activities.

Key words: Anterior cruciate ligament, injury mechanism, dynamic alignment, prevention     

Motor Learning as Young Gymnast’s Talent Indicator

Talent identification plans are designed to select young athletes with the ability to achieve future success in sports. The aim of the study was to verify the predictive value of coordination and precision in skill acquisition during motor learning, as indicators of talent. One hundred gymnasts, both cadets (aged 11.5 ± 0.5 yr.) and juniors (aged 13.3 ± 0.5 years), competing at the national level, were enrolled in the study. The assessment of motor coordination involved three tests of the validated Hirtz’s battery (1985), and motor skill learning involved four technical tests, specific of rhythmic gymnastics. All the tests were correlated with ranking and performance scores reached by each gymnast in the 2011, 2012, and 2013 National Championships. Coordination tests were significantly correlated to 2013 Championships scores (p < 0.01) and ranking (p < 0.05) of elite cadet athletes. Precision, in skill acquisition test results, was positively and significantly associated with scores in 2013 (adj. R² = 0.26, p < 0.01). Gymnasts with the best results in coordination and motor learning tests went on to achieve better competition results in three- year time.

Key points

• In talent identification and selection procedures it is better to include the evaluation of coordination and motor learning ability.
• Motor learning assessment concerns performance improvement and the ability to develop it, rather than evaluating the athlete’s current performance.
• In this manner talent identification processes should be focused on the future performance capabilities of athletes.

Key words: Training, precision, coordination, talent selection, gymnastics, motor skills     

Reactive Agility Performance in Handball; Development and Evaluation of a Sport-Specific Measurement Protocol

There is no current study that examined sport-specific tests of reactive-agility and change-of-direction-speed (CODS) to replicate real-sport environment in handball (team-handball). This investigation evaluated the reliability and validity of two novel tests designed to assess reactive-agility and CODS of handball players. Participants were female (25.14 ± 3.71 years of age; 1.77 ± 0.09 m and 74.1 ± 6.1 kg) and male handball players (26.9 ± 4.1 years of age; 1.90 ± 0.09 m and 93.90±4.6 kg). Variables included body height, body mass, body mass index, broad jump, 5-m sprint, CODS and reactive-agility tests. Results showed satisfactory reliability for reactive-agility-test and CODS-test (ICC of 0.85-0.93, and CV of 2.4-4.8%). The reactive-agility and CODS shared less than 20% of the common variance. The calculated index of perceptual and reactive capacity (P&RC; ratio between reactive-agility- and CODS-performance) is found to be valid measure in defining true-game reactive-agility performance in handball in both genders. Therefore, the handball athletes’ P&RC should be used in the evaluation of real-game reactive-agility performance. Future studies should explore other sport-specific reactive-agility tests and factors associated to such performance in sports involving agile maneuvers.

Key points

• Reactive agility and change-of-direction-speed should be observed as independent qualities, even when tested over the same course and similar movement template
• The reactive-agility-performance of the handball athletes involved in defensive duties is closer to their non-reactive-agility-score than in their peers who are not involved in defensive duties
• The handball specific “true-game” reactive-agility-performance should be evaluated as the ratio between reactive-agility and corresponding CODS performance.

Key words: Change of direction speed, stop-and-go agility, reliability, ecological validity, team-handball     

Player Movement Patterns in an Elite Junior Australian Rules Football Team: an Exploratory Study

This study explored the physical movement patterns associated with an elite Under 18 Australian Football (AF) team. Five field positions were selected with observations recording the number and relative per cent of “working ”efforts (jogging, running, and sprinting), “resting ”efforts (walking) and the total distances associated with “working ”or “resting ”efforts. Intra-observer reliability, using test- retest method, showed correlations were r = 0.98 or greater. The Wing position covered 11,877 m, the greatest total distance during an entire game, whilst the HBF and Centre positions both recorded 11,545 m and 11,537 m respectively and the Ruck position covered 9,203 m. The HBF recorded the greatest frequency of ‘working’ and ‘resting’ efforts (180 and 182 respectively), whilst the Wing (166 and 158), Centre (162 and 149) and Ruck (161 and 166) showed similarities in their results. The Wing position recorded the longest average distance per ‘working’ effort (58 m) whilst the Centre position recorded the longest average distance per ‘resting’ effort (17 m). Results also show the completion of less total efforts and smaller total distances, in Under 18 players, recorded compared to professional senior AF data. The results from this study suggest that further in-depth research is required into movement patterns and game activity demands in this AF playing group.

Key points

• Little information currently exists in the movement patterns and physical activity levels in Australian football at both senior and junior levels.
• The results from this preliminary study found differences in the number of physical efforts and the total volume of work completed in junior Australian football players when compared to previous research in senior players.
• Further in-depth research is required in movement analysis, particularly at the junior level, in order to assist junior coaching staff in developing specific programs for this population group.

Key words: Australian football, time-motion analysis, game demands     

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Genotype Affects Skeletal Muscle Strength In Elite Athletes

Previous studies have associated angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) D allele with variability in the skeletal muscle baseline strength, though conclusions have been inconsistent across investigations. The purpose of this study was to examine the possible association between ACE genotype and skeletal muscle baseline strength in elite male and female athletes involved in different event expertise. A group of 58 elite athletes, designated as Olympic candidates, were studied: 35 swimmers (19 males and 16 females, 18.8 ± 3.2 years) and 23 triathletes (15 males and 8 females, 18.7 ± 3.0 years). The athletes were classified as: short (≤ 200m) and middle (400m to 1500m) distance athletes, respectively. For each subject the grip strength in both hands was measure using an adjustable mechanical hand dynamometer. The maximum height in both squat jump (SJ) and counter movement jump (CMJ) were also assessed, using a trigonometric carpet (Ergojump Digitime 1000; Digitest, Jyvaskyla, Finland). DNA extraction was obtained with Chelex 100^® and genotype determination by PCR-RFLP methods. Both males and females showed significantly higher right grip strength in D allele carriers compared to II homozygote’s. We found that allelic frequency differs significantly by event distance specialization in both genders (p < 0.05). In fact, sprinter D allele carriers showed the superior scores in nearly all strength measurements (p < 0.05), in both genders. Among endurance athletes, the results also demonstrated that female D allele carriers exhibited the higher performance right grip and CMJ scores (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the ACE D allele seems associated with skeletal muscle baseline strength in elite athletes, being easily identified in females.

Key points

• DD homozygote’s and D allele carriers from both genders shows significantly higher right grip strength.
• Right grip strength remains significantly higher in the D allele carrier’s female endurance group.
• Female’s D allele carriers exhibited the higher performance counter-movement jump scores.
• ACE genotype effects in skeletal-muscle strength are diverse by gender, being easily identified in females.

Key words: Swimming, triathlon, genetic polymorphism, sport performance     

Myocardial Performance and Aortic Elastic Properties in Elite Basketball and Soccer Players: Relationship with Aerobic and Anaerobic Capacity

The aims of the present study were to examine the myocardial performance index and aortic elastic properties of athletes engaged in ball sports and to determine their relationships with aerobic and anaerobic characteristics. Standard M-mode and Doppler echocardiography, maximal oxygen uptake and 30 sec Wingate tests were performed for 32 elite male athletes (12 basketball and 20 soccer players) and 12 healthy sedentary volunteers. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and partial correlation coefficient tests. Absolute values of left ventricular internal diameter, left ventricular posterior wall and interventricular septum thicknesses in diastole were significantly (p < 0.05-0.01) greater in athletes than in controls. The left ventricular internal diameter corrected by body surface area was also greater (p < 0.05-0.01) in the athletes compared with the controls. Absolute and body surface area corrected left ventricular mass were significantly greater (p < 0.05-0.001) in athletes than in controls. Isovolumetric relaxation time was higher (p < 0.01) in soccer players than in controls. There were no significant differences among the groups for myocardial performance index and aortic elastic properties. Left ventricular mass index was poorly correlated (p < 0.01) with VO₂max (r = 0.410), peak power (r = 0.439) and average power (r = 0.464) in the athletes. Poor correlations (r = 0.333-0.350, p < 0.05) were also observed between aortic elastic properties and average power in athletes. Myocardial performance index and aortic elastic properties are not different in athletes involved in this study compared with sedentary subjects. Aerobic and anaerobic capacities of the athletes used in this study are poorly explained by these resting echocardiographic findings.

Key Points

• Left ventricular internal diameter, left ventricular posterior wall and interventricular septum thicknesses in diastole, and left ventricular mass were significantly greater in athletes than in controls.
• There were no remarkable differences in Doppler velocities and time intervals between athletes and controls.
• Myocardial performance index and aortic elastic properties are not different in athletes compared with sedentary subjects.
• Aerobic and anaerobic parameters of athletes are poorly explained by resting echocardiographic characteristics.
• VO₂max and anaerobic power indices are variables that better determines left ventricular mass developed in ball sport specific training.

Key words: Athletes’ heart, cardiac function, aortic elastic properties, oxygen uptake, power     

The Metabolic Demands of Kayaking: A Review

Flat-water kayaking is one of the best-known competitive canoeing disciplines in Australia and across the European countries. From a stationary start, paddlers are required to paddle their kayaks with maximal effort along the length of the competing distance. The ultimate criterion of kayak performance is the time taken to paddle a designated competition distance. In flat-water racing, events are contested over 500 and 1000 metres. To approximate the ultimate criterion over these distances, the velocity of the kayak should be measured. Furthermore, other factors that affect performance, such as force, power, technique and aerobic fitness, would all provide a valuable insight to the success of the kayak paddler. Specific research performed examining the physiological demands on kayak paddlers demonstrate high levels of both aerobic power and anaerobic capacity. It is the purpose if this review to present the published physiological data relating to men’s and women’s kayaking. With a number of recent publications, a need for an updated review is necessary. The present review summarises recent data on anthropometrics, physiological characteristics of successful and unsuccessful kayak athletes and methods of physiological testing. Due to the fact that more data have been reported for male competitors than for their female counterparts, the demands of kayaking on male athletes will be the main focus for this review. The review also suggests areas for future research into flatwater kayaking performance. Understanding the physiological requirements of kayaking can assist coaches and athletes in a number of ways. During competition or training, such information is helpful in the selection of appropriate protocols and metabolic indices to monitor an athlete’s performance improvements and assess an athlete’s suitability for a particular race distance. Furthermore, it may aid the coach in the development of more specific training programs for their athletes.

Key points

• Flat water kayaking is characterised by exceptional demands on upper body performance.
• When examining the oxygen consumption, it is notable that although a high value is attainable, they are not quite as high as other sporting events such as road cycling, rowing or running where lower body is dominant.
• Elite kayakers demonstrate superior aerobic and anaerobic quantities and have reported maximal oxygen consumptions of around 58 ml·kg^-1·min^-1 (4.7 L·min^-1) and lactate values of around 12 mM during laboratory and on water testing.

Key words: Kayak, ergometer, anthropometry, oxygen demand, aerobic power, lactate     

Attitudes and Motivations of Competitive Cyclists Regarding Use of Banned and Legal Performance Enhancers

Drug ‘doping’ and the use of banned performance enhancing products (PEPs) remains an issue in virtually all competitive sports despite penal consequences and known health risks. The lines distinguishing “fair” and “unfair” performance enhancement have become increasingly blurred. Few studies have explored how attitudes towards legal performance enhancers (drugs/substances, diet, and equipment modifications) may influence motivations to use banned PEPs. In the present study, 68 competitive cyclists completed a survey examining the importance of choosing banned and non-banned PEPs using World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) criteria. Results showed that over 60 percent of cyclists used non-banned PEPs while 8 percent used banned PEPs. Health was overall the most important factor in choosing a PEP while apprehension by a doping agency was least important. Mixed- model ANOVA analyses revealed that motivations to use banned PEPs were complex, as the importance of health, violating the sprit of the sport, performance improvement, and getting caught were differentially influenced by PEP legality (p < 0.001) and whether a cyclist endorsed non-banned PEP use (p < 0.001). The importance of winning, sponsorship, and maintaining competitiveness did not influence non-banned PEP use (p > 0.05). Our findings illustrate the multifactorial nature of PEP use/doping attitudes and highlight the unique role that “legal” performance enhancement may plays in influencing banned and/or unethical sports behaviors.

Key Points

• Use of performance enhancers is high even among non-professional athletes
• Cyclists overall rated “risk to health” as the most important factor in choosing to use a performance enhancing product.
• Motivations to use banned performance enhancer are complex and are significantly influenced by whether an athlete utilizes “legal” performance enhancers.

Key Words: Doping, sports, ethics, health, WADA     

Physical and Temporal Characteristics of Under 19, Under 21 and Senior Male Beach Volleyball Players

This study aimed to assess the effects of age groups and players’ role (blocker vs. defender specialist) in beach volleyball in relation to physical and temporal variables, considering quality of opposition. 1101 rallies from Under 19 (U19), 933 rallies from Under 21 (U21), and 1480 rallies from senior (senior) (Men’s Swatch World Championships, 2010-2011) were observed using video match analysis. Cluster analysis was used to set teams’ competitive levels and establish quality of opposition as “balanced”, “moderate balanced” and “unbalanced” games. The analyzed variables were: temporal (duration of set, total rest time, total work time, duration of rallies, rest time between rallies) and physical (number of jumps and number of hits done by defenders and blockers) characteristics. A one-way ANOVA, independent samples t-test and multinomial logistic regression were performed to analyze the variables studied. The analysis of temporal and physical characteristics showed differences considering age group, player’s role and quality of opposition. The duration of set, total rest time, and number of jumps done by defenders significantly increased from the U19 to senior category. Multinomial logistic regression showed that in: a) balanced games, rest time between rallies was higher in seniors than in U19 or U21; number of jumps done by defenders was higher in seniors than in U19) and U21; b) moderate balanced games, number of jumps done by defenders was higher in seniors than in U21 and number of jumps done by blockers was smaller in U19 than U21 or seniors; c) unbalanced games, no significant findings were shown. This study suggests differences in players’ performances according to age group and players’ role in different qualities of opposition. The article provides reference values that can be useful to guide training and create scenarios that resemble a competition, taking into account physical and temporal characteristics.

Key Points

• Player roles, quality of opposition, and competitive level of the teams influence physical and temporal characteristics, and they may be taken into consideration during the training by strength and conditioning coaches and coaches.
• More experienced players adopt strategies to better manage their effort and rest time between rallies.
• The game strategy affects the physical actions done by players (e.g. tendency to serve more to one player of the team affects the number of jumps performed by this player).

Key words: Logistic regression, match analysis, age groups, performance, quality of opposition, player role, beach volley     

Perfectionism Moderates the Effects of Goal-Realızatıon on Post-Competition Mood in Amateur Runners

Perfectionism impacts how athletes evaluate their performance. However, little is known about how perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns interplay with athletes’ anticipated and actual performance in predicting mood after the competition. Thus, we conducted a study with amateur runners [n = 152, (72 female, 80 male); Mean±SD age = 34.71 ± 9.57] taking part in a competitive 10-kilometer street run. Perfectionism was measured before the run, while the measurement of mood was taken during the post-competition week. Mood was operationalized in the 3D model of mood, distinguishing between energetic arousal, tense arousal, and hedonic tone. Regression analysis showed that specific patterns of associations between perfectionism and goal-realization explain 17-21% of variance in the dimensions of mood. Higher pleasure after the run was predicted by lower perfectionistic concerns and better conversion of anticipated performance into actual performance. In predicting energy and tension, moderating effects of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and conversion rate were observed. Johnson-Neyman technique revealed that only athletes low in perfectionistic concerns were able to benefit from lower tension when they met or exceeded their goals for the run. The higher athletes’ perfectionistic strivings and conversion rate the more pronounced effects we observed for affect-energization. Results support the idea of perfectionistic reactivity, where the negative consequences of perfectionism can be observed in a lack of positive reactions to positive events. We also suggest that such a response to meeting or exceeding one’s goal may contribute to the development of athlete burnout and hinder the development athlete engagement. Key points

• Perfectionism and goal-realization predicted athletes’ post-run mood.
• Perfectionistic concerns predicted a maladaptive pattern of post-run mood.
• Perfectionistic concerns and goal-realization predicted higher post-run pleasure.
• Perfectionistic strivings boosted positive mood change after meeting one’s goal.
• Perfectionistic concerns inhibited positive mood change after meeting one’s goal.

Key words: Performance, perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, perfectionistic reactivity, goal-progress     

Perceived Barriers to Physical Activity in University Students

Many studies which were published in other countries identified certain benefits and barriers to physical activity among young people. But there is no data about the subject pertaining to Turkish adolescents. This study tries to rectify this with a study of Turkish university students. Undergraduate university students (n = 303) were recruited to the study. Current exercise habits and perceived barriers to physical activity were assessed in the sample. Using a Likert Type scale, participants responded an instrument with 12 items representing barriers to physical activity. Mean scores were computed. External barriers were more important than internal barriers. “Lack of time due to busy lesson schedule”, “My parents give academic success priority over exercise. ”and “lack of time due to responsibilities related to the family and social environment ”were most cited items for physical activity barriers. There is a need for future research, which will be carried out with larger sample groups to develop national standardized instrument. It will be helpful for accurately identify perceived barriers and then recommend changes to enhance physical activity among young people.

Key Points

• The purpose of this study was to analyze perceived barriers to physical activity in the university students.
• The results showed that not having enough time was the most important barrier for not participating in physical activity among our samples.
• This study with relatively small sample must be considered as pilot study for related studies in the future.

Key words: Perceived barriers, exercise, university students     

Adolescent Athletes and the Demand and Supply of Drugs to Improve Their Performance

The aim of this study was to gather information into the principal methods and means employed to supply adolescents with doping agents and others substances used to improve their sporting performance. We conducted a nation wide study in France among adolescent athletes, using a self-completed questionnaire. Exploitable questionnaires (n = 6402) were returned, corresponding to 48.9% for the girls and 51.1% for the boys, both aged on average from 16.1 ± 2.2 years. These adolescents practise on average 10.0 ± 5.2 hours of sport per week. 21.9% participate on a national or international competition level. Of our respondents, 4.0% (95% confidence interval: 3.5% - 4.5%) say they have been enticed into using products which are prohibited for athletes. 10.3% of the adolescents say that they have received substances to improve their performance at least once from an average of two different people. It was mostly a friend, their parents and the family doctor. On average, in 33.2% of the cases, the adolescent received the product without asking for it, and in nearly half the cases (46.6%), the adolescent paid for the product. We feel that it is necessary to better understand the ways in which this black market functions: for example; the initial sources of the products sold, the number and the ‘profiles’ of the dealers, the general organisation of the market and the sums of money involved.

Key Points

• This study confirms the existence of a ‘black market’ for products to improve performance, which is directed at adolescent athletes engaged in high-level competitions.
• This market is characterized by its ease of accessibility and also the diversity of its ‘suppliers’, the two main sources being friends and parents.

Key words: Doping in sport, adolescents, enticement, black market