Systemic issues involved in working with professional sports teams

Sport psychiatrists face a number of systemic and intra-psychic issues when treating professional athletes. Although only a modicum of literature exists to aid sport psychiatrists, there are several steps they may take to become an integral part of an athletic organization and to be successful in the treatment of the athletes themselves. The ability to delineate their role within the sports club is crucial to mental health professionals' organizational success. Equally important, it is incumbent upon sport psychiatrists to recognize and transcend intra-psychic issues that occur between athlete and physician.     

The role of exercise in children and adolescents

The role of exercise in children and adolescents has been discussed, including consideration of conditioning and training guidelines for this age group. Training should be sport-specific, with any conditioning program specifically emphasizing the energy systems used by the particular sport. The effect of exercise on growth and development and subsequent precautions to be taken protecting potential stature area have also been outlined. Too much, as well as too little, exercise adversely affects development. Good nutrition is very much correlated with good performance and has a strong beneficial effect on the athletic success of youngsters. Significant preparticipation concerns have been outlined.     

Perceived parental beliefs about the causes of success in sport: relationship to athletes' achievement goals and personal beliefs

This study examined the relationship between perceived parental beliefs and young athletes' achievement goal orientations and personal beliefs about the causes of success in sport. Participants were 183 male and female athletes, 11-18 years old, involved in team sports. Athletes completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, the Beliefs about the Causes of Sport Success Questionnaire, and two modified versions of the latter inventory to assess their perceptions of their parents' beliefs. Canonical correlation analysis revealed that perceived parental beliefs were related to goal orientations and personal beliefs in a conceptually coherent fashion. Thus, the perceived parental belief that effort leads to success in sport was related to athletes' task orientation and personal belief that effort causes sport success. In contrast, the perceived parental beliefs that superior ability, external factors, and using deceptive tactics are precursors to success in sport corresponded to athletes' ego orientation and the same personal beliefs. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding the socialization experiences of young athletes.     

Ethics in sports medicine

Physicians have struggled with the medical ramifications of athletic competition since ancient Greece, where rational medicine and organized athletics originated. Historically, the relationship between sport and medicine was adversarial because of conflicts between health and sport. However, modern sports medicine has emerged with the goal of improving performance and preventing injury, and the concept of the "team physician" has become an integral part of athletic culture. With this distinction come unique ethical challenges because the customary ethical norms for most forms of clinical practice, such as confidentiality and patient autonomy, cannot be translated easily into sports medicine. The particular areas of medical ethics that present unique challenges in sports medicine are informed consent, third parties, advertising, confidentiality, drug use, and innovative technology. Unfortunately, there is no widely accepted code of sports medicine ethics that adequately addresses these issues.     

Understanding the role parents play in tennis success: a national survey of junior tennis coaches

Objectives

To assess coaches'' perceptions about the role of parents and their positive and negative behaviours in junior tennis.

Methods

A national survey of 132 United States junior tennis coaches was completed. The extent and seriousness/impact of parent‐child interaction problems and positive behaviours were rated.

Results

Parents were perceived as very important for junior tennis success. Most parents (59%) that these coaches had worked with were seen as having a positive influence on their player''s development. However, the respondents also felt that 36% of parents negatively influenced their child''s development. Positive parental behaviours included providing logistical, financial, and social‐emotional support, as well as tennis opportunities and unconditional love. Negative parent behaviours included overemphasising winning, holding unrealistic expectations, and criticising their child.

Conclusions

Findings are discussed relative to current sport parenting and athletic talent development research and theorising. The need to educate parents is emphasised.     

A conceptual framework of organizational stressors in sport performers

In the study reported here, 12 sport performers (six elite and six non-elite) were interviewed with regard to organizational-related issues they had experienced in preparation for competition. Grounded theory procedures facilitated the development of a conceptual framework of organizational stressors consisting of five general dimensions: factors intrinsic to the sport, roles in the sport organization, sport relationships and interpersonal demands, athletic career and performance development issues, and organizational structure and climate of the sport. The data indicate that the stressors were encountered proportionately more by elite performers (#EPOS=315) than non-elite performers (#NPOS=228) with some demands being in common and some unique to each group. The results are discussed in relation to previous research and regarding their implications for professional practice.     

The use of drugs in swimming

The use of drugs to enhance athletic performance poses tremendous potential risk to amateur sport. The aquatic sports are not immune from this risk. Although the exact incidence of drug usage among aquatic athletes is not known, empirical evidence would suggest that there are indeed athletes who are using substances in an effort to enhance performance. A number of the commonly used substances have been discussed and their risks and side effects reviewed. Future success in eradicating drug usage in sport will only result from increased efforts directed at enhancement of athlete education, development of strict policies dealing with those athletes who use banned substances, and refinement of drug testing procedures.     

Characteristics of national and world class female pentathletes.

Nine national and world-class female pentathletes were assessed for body composition, maximal aerobic power (Vo2max), strength, and speed. The subjects averaged 175.4 cm in height, 65.4 kg in weight, 11.0% relative body fat, 45.9 ml kg min-1 in Vo2max, and 8.35 m/sec for maximal running speed. When compared with other athletic females, this group was tall and lean with good, but not exceptional, maximal aerobic power. Group means for one-repetition maximum lifts were 59.7 kg (power clean), 61.5 kg (horizontal bench press), 60.0 kg (pull down), 87.9 kg (squat), 44.9 kg (include bench press), and 36.3 kg (leg curl). Within this elite group the most successful performers were stronger and possessed a greater lean body weight which together suggest the importance of muscle mass for success in the pentathlon.     

Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

A range of motivational characteristics were studied in a sample of 228 males and 124 females (age: 15–16 years) recruited from the most promising performers of different sports, mainly in western Norway. They all completed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (competitiveness, win and goal orientation), the short Sensation Seeking Scale, the Life Orientation Test (optimism), a new scale on Social Reactivity (reactive and proactive negativism) and questions on the importance of friendship among sport performers and of being the best. Differences of motivational styles were tested between males and females, performers of endurance, explosive and team sports and moderately versus highly successful performers. The males scored significantly higher on competitiveness, win and goal orientation, sensation seeking and so-called reactive negativism, but scored significantly lower than females on the importance of friendship. More complex group differences were also significant. One example is the relatively high mean score for proactive negativism in males performing explosive sports and the low mean in females of team sports. Our findings indicate a role for gender, type of sport, and level of excellence in motivational differences among these promising athletes. The prospective significance of motivational differences for future success in sport competitions will be tested in a follow-up study.     

Doping control for the team physician: a review of drug testing procedures in sport

Drug testing is now ubiquitous in sport, and it often falls to the team physician to perform a variety of roles including interpreting test results, designing drug-testing programs, acting as medical review officer, and providing therapeutic use exemptions, education, and counseling. Proper understanding of current testing methods for drugs such as anabolic-androgenic steroids, erythropoietin, and growth hormone is essential if the team physician is going to assume these positions. This article outlines the basics of athletic drug testing from the collection process through the interpretation of results to assist the team physician in this field.     

Predictability of physiological testing and the role of maturation in talent identification for adolescent team sports.

Entrepreneurial marketing of sport increases demands on sport development officers to identify talented individuals for specialist development at the youngest possible age. Talent identification results in the streamlining of resources to produce optimal returns from a sports investment. However, the process of talent identification for team sports is complex and success prediction is imperfect. The aim of this review is to describe existing practices in physiological tests used for talent identification in team sports and discuss the impact of maturity-related differences on the long term outcomes particularly for male participants. Maturation is a major confounding variable in talent identification during adolescence. A myriad of hormonal changes during puberty results in physical and physiological characteristics important for sporting performance. Significant changes during puberty make the prediction of adult performance difficult from adolescent data. Furthermore, for talent identification programs to succeed, valid and reliable testing procedures must be accepted and implemented in a range of performance-related categories. Limited success in scientifically based talent identification is evident in a range of team sports. Genetic advances challenge the ethics of talent identification in adolescent sport. However, the environment remains a significant component of success prediction in sport. Considerations for supporting talented young male athletes are discussed.     

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and psychopharmacologic treatments in the athlete

It is conjectured that attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms adversely impacting academics, family functioning, social relationships, and vocational performance might also negatively affect athletic and sport performance and enjoyment; this warrants further scientific inquiry. Children, adolescents, and adults participate in organized and impromptu sport activities, both team and individual. With the concern about an epidemic of obesity in the United States, barriers to participation in sport and exercise such as ADHD need to be better understood. This article approaches ADHD in sports by providing a brief introduction to ADHD, first reviewing general clinical findings, then discussing recreational youth sports and psychopharmacological treatment risks and benefits for the elite athlete.     

Demographic differences in sport performers’ experiences of organizational stressors

Organizational stressors are particularly prevalent across sport performers’ experiences and can influence their performance, health, and well‐being. Research has been conducted to identify which organizational stressors are encountered by sport performers, but little is known about how these experiences vary from athlete to athlete. The purpose of this study was to examine if the frequency, intensity, and duration of the organizational stressors that sport performers encounter vary as a function of gender, sport type, and performance level. Participants (n = 1277) completed the Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers (OSI‐SP; Arnold et al., 2013), and the resultant data were analyzed using multivariate analyses of covariance. The findings show that demographic differences are apparent in the dimensions of the goals and development, logistics and operations, team and culture, coaching, and selection organizational stressors that sport performers encounter. More specifically, significant differences were found between males and females, between team and individual‐based performers, and between performers competing at national or international, regional or university, and county or club levels. These findings have important implications for theory and research on organizational stress, and for the development of stress management interventions with sport performers.     

The assessment of athletic hip injury.

The differential diagnosis of athletic hip pain is extensive. The physical demands of sport place the athlete at increased risk to injure the hip. The basis of successful treatment of the athlete with hip pain lies in the ability of the physician to assess and diagnose the etiology accurately. A thorough understanding of the evaluation of the athlete with hip pain allows for an earlier diagnosis, earlier treatment, and ultimately an earlier return to sport.     

Ethics of technologically constructed hypoxic environments in sport

With the use of technologically constructed hypoxic environments (TCHE) in soccer as our case, we propose four check points from which to evaluate new performance-enhancing technologies in sport. These are (I) Is the technology beneficial, (II) Is it safe, (III) Can fairness be assured, and (IV) Is the technology in line with the spirit of or rationale for sport? The use of TCHE is ambiguous. On the one hand, in situations with grave inequalities between teams due to lack of acclimatization of one team, TCHE can be an efficient means to even the playing field and out of concern for athlete welfare and health. On the other hand, if used as a pure performance-enhancing means to enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood independent of altitude, it belongs to a category of expert-assisted performance enhancement that may challenge athletic autonomy and the responsibility for one's own performance and, hence, the spirit of sport.     

Comparaison de la force musculaire isocinétique et du ratio ischiojambiers/quadriceps entre des sportifs tunisiens

There is growing evidence that isokinetic muscle strength, is one of the most common testing method why muscle strength is thought to be a major factor in athletic success. This method concerned the peak torque, the concentric ratio flexor/extensor, with comparison between sport specialities.     

Foot injuries and arthroscopy in sport

Arthroscopy of the foot and ankle is a valuable tool for treating athletic foot injuries. The ability to evaluate and treat injuries without an extensive open approach is very important when dealing with the athletic population, allowing a much quicker rehabilitation and return to sport. The diagnostic and therapeutic indications for foot and ankle arthroscopy have increased significantly over recent years. Techniques and instrumentation have become more advanced and more readily available to the orthopaedist. This article defines the conditions in which arthroscopy is appropriate and presents current techniques for treatment.     

Can biofeedback training of psychophysiological responses enhance athletes’ sport performance? A practitioner’s perspective

Background: In recent years, biofeedback has become increasingly popular for its proven success in peak performance training – the psychophysiological preparation of athletes for high-stakes sport competitions, such as the Olympic games. The aim of this research was to test whether an 8-week period of exposure to biofeedback training could improve the psychophysiological control over competitive anxiety and enhance athletic performance in participating subjects. Methods: Participants of this study were highly competent athletes, each training in different sport disciplines. The experimental group consisted of 18 athletes (4 women, 14 men), whereas the Control group had 21 athletes (4 women, 17 men). All athletes were between 16 and 34 years old. The biofeedback device, Nexus 10, was used to detect and measure the psychophysiological responses of athletes. Athletes from both groups (control and experimental) were subjected to stress tests at the beginning of the study and once again at its conclusion. In between, the experimental group received training in biofeedback techniques. We then calculated the overall percentage of athletes in the experimental group compared with those in the control group who were able to control respiration, skin conductance, heart rate, blood flow amplitude, heart rate variability, and heart respiration coherence. One year following completion of the initial study, we questioned athletes from the experimental group, to determine whether they continued to use these skills and if they could detect any subsequent enhancement in their athletic performance. Results: We demonstrated that a greater number of participants in the experimental group were able to successfully control their psychophysiological parameters, in comparison to their peers in the control group. Significant results (p < 0.05) were noted in regulation of GSR following short stress test conditions (p = 0.037), in regulation of HR after exposure to STROOP stressor (p = 0.037), in regulation of GSR following the Math and GSR stressors (p = 0.033, p = 0.409) and in achieving HR – breathing coherence following the math stressor (p = 0.042). Conclusion: One year following completion of the training program, all participants from the experimental group indicated that they were still using the biofeedback – psycho-regulation skills. Furthermore, these participants uniformly reported believing that these skills had enhanced their athletic performance and general well-being.     

Emotional intelligence in sport and exercise: A systematic review

This review targets emotional intelligence (EI) in sport and physical activity. We systematically review the available literature and offer a sound theoretical integration of differing EI perspectives (the tripartite model of EI) before considering applied practice in the form of EI training. Our review identified 36 studies assessing EI in an athletic or physical activity context. EI has most often been conceptualized as a trait. In the context of sport performance, we found that EI relates to emotions, physiological stress responses, successful psychological skill usage, and more successful athletic performance. In the context of physical activity, we found that trait EI relates to physical activity levels and positive attitudes toward physical activity. There was a shortage of research into the EI of coaches, officials, and spectators, non‐adult samples, and longitudinal and experimental methods. The tripartite model proposes that EI operates on three levels – knowledge, ability, and trait – and predicts an interplay between the different levels of EI. We present this framework as a promising alternative to trait and ability EI conceptualizations that can guide applied research and professional practice. Further research into EI training, measurement validation and cultural diversity is recommended.