Initial clinical experience with infrared-reflecting skin markers in the positioning of patients treated by conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer

PURPOSE: To evaluate an infrared (IR) marker-based positioning system in patients receiving conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: During 553 treatments, the ability of the IR system to automatically position the isocenter was recorded. Setup errors were measured by means of orthogonal verification films and compared to conventional positioning (using skin drawings and lasers) in 184 treatments. RESULTS: The standard deviation of anteroposterior (AP) and lateral setup errors was significantly reduced with IR marker positioning compared to conventional: 2 vs. 4.8 mm AP (p < 0.01) and 1.6 vs. 3.5 mm laterally (p < 0.01). Longitudinally, the difference was not significant (3.5 vs. 3.0 mm). Systematic errors were on the average smaller AP and laterally for the IR method: 4.1 vs. 7.8 mm AP (p = 0.01) and 3.1 vs. 5.6 mm lateral (p = 0.07). Longitudinally, the IR system resulted in somewhat larger systematic errors: 5.0 vs. 3.4 mm for conventional positioning (p = 0.03). The use of an off-line correction protocol, based on the average deviation measured over the first four fractions, allowed virtual elimination of systematic errors. Inability of the IR system to correctly locate the markers, leading to an executional failure, occurred in 21% of 553 fractions. CONCLUSION: IR marker-assisted patient positioning significantly improves setup accuracy along the AP and lateral axes. Executional failures need to be reduced.     

CT image fusion as a tool for measuring in 3D the setup errors during conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer

AIMS AND BACKGROUND: The importance of optimal daily patient positioning has been stressed in order to ensure treatment reproducibility and gain in accuracy and precision. We report our data on the 3D setup uncertainty during radiation therapy for prostate cancer using the CT image fusion technique. METHODS: Ten consecutive patients scheduled for radiation therapy for prostate cancer underwent 5 prone position CT scans using an individualized immobilization cast. These different setups were analyzed using the image fusion module of the ERGO 3D-Line Medical System (Milan, Italy) treatment planning system. The isocenter and the body marker displacements were measured. RESULTS: The 3D isocenter dislocations were quantified: systematic error was sigma(3D) = 3.9 mm, whereas random error was sigma(3D) = 1 mm. The mean of the minimum displacements was 0.2 +/- 1 mm showing that the immobilization device used allows an accurate setup to be obtained. Single direction errors were also measured showing systematic errors, sigma(AP), = 2.6 mm, sigma(LL) = 0.6 mm, SigmaSI = 3 mm in the anterior-posterior, latero-lateral, superior-inferior direction, respectively. Related random errors were sigma(AP), = 1 mm, sigma(LL) = 0.6 mm, sigma(SI) = 1.2 mm. In terms of accuracy, our uncertainties are similar to those reported in the literature. CONCLUSIONS: By applying the CT image fusion technique, a 3D study on setup accuracy was performed. We demonstrated that the use of an individualized immobilization system for prostate treatment is adequate to obtain good setup accuracy, as long as a high-quality positioning control method, such as the stereoscopic X-ray-based positioning system, is used.     

Positioning accuracy in stereotactic radiotherapy using a mask system with added vacuum mouth piece and stereoscopic X-ray positioning

PURPOSE: For cranial patients receiving stereotactic radiotherapy, we use the Exactrac stereoscopic X-ray system to optimize patient positioning. Patients are immobilized with the BrainLAB Mask System (BrainLAB, Feldkirchen, Germany). We have developed an adapter to this system that accommodates a vacuum mouth piece (VMP). Measurements with the Exactrac system have been performed to study the positioning accuracy after corrections with this system and to evaluate the accuracy of the VMP vs. the standard available upper jaw support (UJS). METHODS AND MATERIALS: Positioning results were collected for 20 patients with the UJS and 20 patients with the VMP, before treatment (1,122 fractions) and after treatment (400 fractions). For all 6 degrees of freedom the average, the random error and systematic error were calculated. RESULTS: The average vector length before and after correction with the Exactrac system was 2.1 +/- 1.2 mm and 0.7 +/- 0.6 mm respectively for UJS and 1.7 +/- 0.7 mm and 0.4 +/- 0.4 mm for VMP. Interfraction positioning for translations was greatly improved after correction with the Exactrac system (p < 0.0005) and is better with VMP than with UJS (p = 0.005). Outliers were greatly reduced. Interfraction rotations were significantly smaller for VMP. Intrafraction errors for vertical and longitudinal translations and for rotations were smaller for the VMP. CONCLUSIONS: Positioning correction using the Exactrac X-ray system greatly improves accuracy. Adding the VMP results in even better patient fixation and smaller rotations, making it a useful addition to the Mask System. Combined, this is a convenient and accurate alternative to invasive fixation methods.     

Daily electronic portal imaging of implanted gold seed fiducials in patients undergoing radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to measure interfraction prostate bed motion, setup error, and total positioning error in 10 consecutive patients undergoing postprostatectomy radiotherapy. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Daily image-guided target localization and alignment using electronic portal imaging of gold seed fiducials implanted into the prostate bed under transrectal ultrasound guidance was used in 10 patients undergoing adjuvant or salvage radiotherapy after prostatectomy. Prostate bed motion, setup error, and total positioning error were measured by analysis of gold seed fiducial location on the daily electronic portal images compared with the digitally reconstructed radiographs from the treatment-planning CT. RESULTS: Mean (+/- standard deviation) prostate bed motion was 0.3 +/- 0.9 mm, 0.4 +/- 2.4 mm, and -1.1 +/- 2.1 mm in the left-right (LR), superior-inferior (SI), and anterior-posterior (AP) axes, respectively. Mean set-up error was 0.1 +/- 4.5 mm, 1.1 +/- 3.9 mm, and -0.2 +/- 5.1 mm in the LR, SI, and AP axes, respectively. Mean total positioning error was 0.2 +/- 4.5 mm, 1.2 +/- 5.1 mm, and -0.3 +/- 4.5 mm in the LR, SI, and AP axes, respectively. Total positioning errors >5 mm occurred in 14.1%, 38.7%, and 28.2% of all fractions in the LR, SI, and AP axes, respectively. There was no significant migration of the gold marker seeds. CONCLUSIONS: This study validates the use of daily image-guided target localization and alignment using electronic portal imaging of implanted gold seed fiducials as a valuable method to correct for interfraction target motion and to improve precision in the delivery of postprostatectomy radiotherapy.     

Uncertainty in treatment of head-and-neck tumors by use of intraoral mouthpiece and embedded fiducials

PURPOSE: To reduce setup error and intrafractional movement in head-and-neck treatment, a real-time tumor tracking radiotherapy (RTRT) system was used with the aid of gold markers implanted in a mouthpiece. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Three 2-mm gold markers were implanted into a mouthpiece that had been custom made for each patient before the treatment planning process. Setup errors in the conventional immobilization system using the shell (manual setup) and in the RTRT system (RTRT setup) were compared. Eight patients with pharyngeal tumors were enrolled. RESULTS: The systematic setup errors were 1.8, 1.6, and 1.1 mm in the manual setup and 0.2, 0.3, and 0.3 mm in the RTRT setup in right-left, craniocaudal, and AP directions, respectively. Statistically significant differences were observed with respect to the variances in setup error (p <0.001). The systematic and random intrafractional errors were maintained within the ranges of 0.2-0.6 mm and 1.0-2.0 mm, respectively. The rotational systematic and random intrafractional errors were estimated to be 2.2-3.2 degrees and 1.5-1.6 degrees , respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The setup error and planning target volume margin can be significantly reduced using an RTRT system with a mouthpiece and three gold markers.     

Performing daily prostate targeting with a standard V-EPID and an automated radio-opaque marker detection algorithm.

Online prostate positioning using gold markers and a standard video-based electronic portal imaging device is reported. The average systematic (random) errors have been reduced from 2.1 mm (2.7 mm) to 0.5 mm (1.5 mm) in AP direction, 1.1 mm (1.7 mm) to 0.7 mm (1.2 mm) SI and 1.2 mm (1.7 mm) to 0.6 mm (1.3 mm) LR.     

Comparison of two immobilization techniques using portal film and digitally reconstructed radiographs for pediatric patients with brain tumors

PURPOSE: To compare the accuracy of two immobilization techniques for pediatric brain tumor patients. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We analyzed data from 128 treatments involving 22 patients. Patients were immobilized with either a relocatable head frame (12 patients) or a vacuum bag (10 patients). Orthogonal portal films were used as verification images. Errors in patient positioning were measured by comparing verification images with digitally reconstructed radiographs generated by a three-dimensional treatment-planning system. RESULTS: With the head frame, systematic errors ranged from 1.4 mm to 2.1 mm; random errors, from 1.7 mm to 2.1 mm. With the vacuum bag, systematic errors ranged from 2.1 mm to 2.5 mm; random errors, from 2.0 mm to 2.6 mm. For the head frame, the mean length of the radial displacement was 4.4 mm; 90% of the total three-dimensional deviation was less than 6.8 mm. The corresponding values for the vacuum bag were 5.0 and 6.6 mm, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The head frame and vacuum bag techniques limit the random and systematic errors in each of the three directions to within +/- 5 mm. We have used these results to determine the margin used to create the planning target volume for conformal radiation therapy.     

Accuracy of daily image guidance for hypofractionated liver radiotherapy with active breathing control

PURPOSE: A six-fraction, high-precision radiotherapy protocol for unresectable liver cancer has been developed in which active breathing control (ABC) is used to immobilize the liver and daily megavoltage (MV) imaging and repositioning is used to decrease geometric uncertainties. We report the accuracy of setup in the first 20 patients consecutively treated using this approach. METHODS AND MATERIALS: After setup using conventional skin marks and lasers, orthogonal MV images were acquired with the liver immobilized using ABC. The images were aligned to reference digitally reconstructed radiographs using the diaphragm for craniocaudal (CC) alignment and the vertebral bodies for anterior-posterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML) alignment. Adjustments were made for positioning errors >3 mm. Verification imaging was repeated after repositioning to assess for residual positioning error. Offline image matching was conducted to determine the setup accuracy using this approach compared with the initial setup error before repositioning. Real-time beam's-eye-view MV movies containing an air-diaphragm interface were also evaluated. RESULTS: A total of 405 images were evaluated from 20 patients. Repositioning occurred in 109 of 120 fractions because of offsets >3 mm. Three to eight beam angles, with up to four segments per field, were used for each isocenter. Breath holds of up to 27 s were used for imaging and treatment. The average time from the initial verification image to the last treatment beam was 21 min. Image guidance and repositioning reduced the population random setup errors (sigma) from 6.5 mm (CC), 4.2 mm (ML), and 4.7 mm (AP) to 2.5 mm (CC), 2.8 mm (ML), and 2.9 mm (AP). The average individual random setup errors (sigma) were reduced from 4.5 mm (CC), 3.2 mm (AP), and 2.5 mm (ML) to 2.2 mm (CC), 2.0 mm (AP), and 2.0 mm (ML). The standard deviation of the distribution of systematic deviations (Sigma) was also reduced from 5.1 mm (CC), 3.4 mm (ML), and 3.1 mm (AP) to 1.4 mm (CC), 2.0 mm (ML), and 1.9 mm (AP) with image guidance and repositioning. The average absolute systematic errors were reduced from 4.1 mm (CC), 2.4 mm (AP), and 3.1 (ML) to 1.1 mm (CC), 1.3 mm (AP), and 1.6 mm (ML). Analysis of 52 real-time beam's-eye-view MV movies revealed an average absolute CC offset in diaphragm position of 1.9 mm. CONCLUSION: Image guidance with orthogonal MV imaging and ABC for stereotactic body radiotherapy for liver cancer is feasible, improving setup accuracy compared with ABC without daily imaging and repositioning.     

Experiences at the Paul Scherrer Institute with a remote patient positioning procedure for high-throughput proton radiation therapy

PURPOSE: To describe a remote positioning system for accurate and efficient proton radiotherapy treatments. METHODS AND MATERIALS: To minimize positioning time in the treatment room (and thereby maximize beam utility), we have adopted a method for remote patient positioning, with patients positioned and imaged outside the treatment room. Using a CT scanner, positioning is performed using orthogonal topograms with the measured differences to the reference images being used to define daily corrections to the patient table in the treatment room. Possible patient movements during transport and irradiation were analyzed through periodic acquisition of posttreatment topograms. Systematic and random errors were calculated for this daily positioning protocol and for two off-line protocols. The potential time advantage of remote positioning was assessed by computer simulation. RESULTS: Applying the daily correction protocol, systematic errors calculated over all patients (n = 94) were below 0.6 mm, whereas random errors were below 1.5 mm and 2.5 mm, respectively, for bite-block and for mask immobilization. Differences between pre- and posttreatment images were below 2.8 mm (SD) in abdominal/pelvic region, and below 2.4 mm (SD) in the head. Retrospective data analysis for a subset of patients revealed that off-line protocols would be significantly less accurate. Computer simulations showed that remote positioning can increase patient throughput up to 30%. CONCLUSIONS: The use of a daily imaging and correction protocol based on a "remote" CT could reduce positioning errors to below 2.5 mm and increase beam utility in the treatment room. Patient motion between imaging and treatment were not significant.     

红外定位系统在胸腹部肿瘤放射治疗中的应用

目的:研究红外定位系统(optical positioning system,OPS)在胸腹部肿瘤放射治疗中对摆位误差的指导意义.方法:选择30例胸腹部肿瘤患者,均采用改进型仰卧位固定技术固定,所有患者均辅以OPS标记.患者治疗时按常规方法对照激光线摆位,行锥形束CT(cone beam computed tomogr...     

Assessment of a customised immobilisation system for head and neck IMRT using electronic portal imaging.

PURPOSE: To evaluate set-up reproducibility of a cabulite shell and determine CTV-PTV margins for head and neck intensity-modulated-radiotherapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty patients were entered into the study. A total of 354 anterior and lateral isocentric electronic portal images (EPIs) were compared to simulator reference images. RESULTS: About 94% of all translational displacements were < or =3 mm, and 99% < or =5 mm. The overall systematic error was 0.9 mm (+/-1.0SD) in the Right-Left, 0.7 mm (+/-0.9SD) in the Superior-Inferior and -0.02 mm (+/-1.1SD) in the Anterior-Posterior directions. The corresponding SDs of the random errors were +/-0.4, +/-0.6 and +/-0.7 mm. The estimated margins required from CTV-PTV were calculated according to the Van Herk formula was 2.9, 2.6 and 3.3 mm, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This head and neck immobilisation system is of sufficient accuracy for its use with IMRT treatments and a 3 mm CTV-PTV margin has been adopted.     

肝癌术后简化调强放疗临床靶体积误差的锥形束CT分析

目的 通过锥形束CT (CBCT)分析肝癌患者术后简化调强放疗分次间和分次内的临床靶体积(CTV)误差。方法 12例肝癌患者放疗前、后均行CBCT。在瘤床放置金属标记,配准框包全所有金属标记,不包括肋骨、椎体等骨质,使用自动骨性配准。若放疗前平移误差>3 mm和(或)旋转误差>3°则行在线校位后重复CBCT。12例患者共行214次CBCT成111组数据,111组可计算分次间左右(x)、头脚(y)、前后(z)方向CTV误差,70组可计算分次内CTV误差。计划靶体积(PTV)边界计算公式为2.0∑+0.7σ(∑为系统误差,σ为随机误差)。结果 x、y、z方向上分次间CTV平移误差分别为 －0.03、－0.43、1.02 mm,∑分别为1.50、5.89、1.97 mm,σ分别为1.76、4.13、2.42 mm;分次内平移误差分别为0.04、0.86、－0.46 mm,∑分别为0.46、1.14、0.31 mm,σ分别为0.95、1.38、0.91 mm。PTV边界在x、y、z方向上分别为4.5、15.0、5.8 mm。结论 肝癌患者简化调强放疗时CTV误差不可避免,使用术中放置瘤床金属标记行CBCT获得的数据真实准确。     

Interfractional and intrafractional accuracy during radiotherapy of gynecologic carcinomas: a comprehensive evaluation using the ExacTrac system

PURPOSE: To evaluate positioning uncertainties with an infrared body marker-based positioning system (ExacTrac) compared with conventional laser positioning in patients treated for gynecologic carcinomas, and to investigate patient movement during therapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten patients were positioned both with a conventional laser system and with the ExacTrac system. Positioning accuracy was evaluated using repeated electronic portal images. Average displacements and overall, systematic, and random errors were calculated and compared for the two positioning methods. Further, inter- and intrafractional patient movement including time trends in positioning displacements, respiratory amplitudes, and breathing frequencies were analyzed by online documentation of body marker movement with the ExacTrac system. RESULTS: Average displacements ranged between -3.6 and 6.7 mm for the three coordinates. Mean systematic and random errors ranged from 1.6 to 3.7 mm and 2.2 to 3.7 mm, respectively, with no significant differences between conventional and ExacTrac positioning (p > 0.07). The main breathing direction was from dorsocaudal to anterocranial in 9 of 10 patients. The mean 3D breathing amplitude in the pelvis was 2.4 mm (0.49-6.96 mm). Significant interfractional and intrafractional time trends were observed concerning breathing amplitudes and positioning displacements. CONCLUSIONS: The observed displacements did not vary significantly between the two evaluated positioning systems. The analysis of registered body marker positions revealed a wide variation in respiratory frequencies, breathing amplitudes, and patient displacements with interfractional and intrafractional time trends. Systems that allow the measurement of each patient's motion characteristics are a necessary requirement for all efforts at individually tailored radiation therapy.     

基于3DCBCT/4DCBCT保乳术后VMAT摆位误差测量与校正的比较研究

目的 探讨保乳术后自由呼吸状态下基于3DCBCT和4DCBCT测定的乳腺VMAT摆位误差间及摆位残差间差异。方法 选择保乳术后外照射患者20例,全部行4DCT扫描并勾画靶区,应用MONACO v5.10计划系统制定WMAT计划。分次治疗前隔次采集4DCBCT和3DCBCT图像各5次,将CBCT图像与计划CT图像配准,实施在线校正后再次采集CBCT图像,比较两种测量方法间摆位误差和摆位残差的差异。摆位误差和摆位残差间两两比较行配对t检验。结果 校正前基于4DCBCT测得的三维方向摆位误差均显著大于基于3DCBCT测得值(P=0.035、0.018、0.040)。校正后左右和前后方向基于3DCBCT获取的随机误差更小[(0.5±0.39) mm∶(0.7±0.30) mm,P=0.005;(0.9±1.09) mm∶(1.2±0.48) mm,P=0.000]),前后方向基于3DCBCT获取的总摆位残差更小[(0.2±0.33) mm∶(0.6±0.63) mm,P=0.000]。校正前后在前后方向基于4DCBCT测量值计算的摆位边界显著大于基于3DCBCT获得的(P=0.002)。结论 相对于3DCBCT,在三维方向上4DCBCT监测摆位误差的能力更强;两种方式在校正随机误差方面的效能相似,通过校正均能达到较为满意的体位重复度并缩小靶区外扩边界。     

鼻咽癌调强放射治疗摆位不确定度对危及器官计划体积(PRV)影响的研究

背景与目的:在进行调强放射治疗(intensity modulated radiationtherapy,IMRT)计划设计时,危及器官的计划体积(planning risk volumes,PRVs)的定义对计划优化设计的结果影响很大。而PRV的设定与执行调强放射治疗时体位固定的不确定度有密切关系。本研究探讨鼻咽癌IMRT时需要设定的危及器官安全边界的大小。方法:选取首次做适形调强放疗的早期鼻咽癌患者19例。每周进行一次CT重复扫描,方法与做治疗计划时完全相同。共获取85次扫描参数。通过读图软件Osiris对每周扫描的CT图像与计划设计的CT图像进行比较,求出每次摆位与首次定位时感兴趣的解剖骨性标志点(这些骨性标志点代表视神经、脑垂体、脊髓、腮腺)在三维方向上的差异。结果:19例患者的85次CT扫描参数与计划CT扫描参数进行比较,视神经、脑垂体在X、Y、Z三个轴向的绝对位移值分别为(0.86±0.53)mm、(0.84±0.68)mm、(0.93±1.02)mm,轴向矢量位移的Σ(系统误差的标准差)分别为0.83mm、1.08mm、1.21mm,δ(随机误差的标准差)分别为0.85mm、0.83mm、1.14mm。脊髓、腮腺在X、Y、Z三个轴向的绝对位移值分别为(0.98±0.74)mm、(1.25±0.88)mm、(1.43±1.02)mm,轴向矢量位移的Σ分别为0.98mm、1.35mm、1.87mm,δ分别为1.02mm、1.46mm、1.54mm。结论:使用连续CT多次重复扫描的方法来研究鼻咽癌放射治疗时危及器官安全边界值的大小是可行的。     

Accuracy of ultrasound-based (BAT) prostate-repositioning: a three-dimensional on-line fiducial-based assessment with cone-beam computed tomography

PURPOSE: To assess the accuracy of ultrasound-based repositioning (BAT) before prostate radiation with fiducial-based three-dimensional matching with cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fifty-four positionings in 8 patients with 125I seeds/intraprostatic calcifications as fiducials were evaluated. Patients were initially positioned according to skin marks and after this according to bony structures based on CBCT. Prostate position correction was then performed with BAT. Residual error after repositioning based on skin marks, bony anatomy, and BAT was estimated by a second CBCT based on user-independent automatic fiducial registration. RESULTS: Overall mean value (MV+/-SD) residual error after BAT based on fiducial registration by CBCT was 0.7+/-1.7 mm in x (group systematic error [M]=0.5 mm; SD of systematic error [Sigma]=0.8 mm; SD of random error [sigma]=1.4 mm), 0.9+/-3.3 mm in y (M=0.5 mm, Sigma=2.2 mm, sigma=2.8 mm), and -1.7+/-3.4 mm in z (M=-1.7 mm, Sigma=2.3 mm, sigma=3.0 mm) directions, whereas residual error relative to positioning based on skin marks was 2.1+/-4.6 mm in x (M=2.6 mm, Sigma=3.3 mm, sigma=3.9 mm), -4.8+/-8.5 mm in y (M=-4.4 mm, Sigma=3.7 mm, sigma=6.7 mm), and -5.2+/-3.6 mm in z (M=-4.8 mm, Sigma=1.7 mm, sigma=3.5 mm) directions and relative to positioning based on bony anatomy was 0+/-1.8 mm in x (M=0.2 mm, Sigma=0.9 mm, sigma=1.1 mm), -3.5+/-6.8 mm in y (M=-3.0 mm, Sigma=1.8 mm, sigma=3.7 mm), and -1.9+/-5.2 mm in z (M=-2.0 mm, Sigma=1.3 mm, sigma=4.0 mm) directions. CONCLUSIONS: BAT improved the daily repositioning accuracy over skin marks or even bony anatomy. The results obtained with BAT are within the precision of extracranial stereotactic procedures and represent values that can be achieved with several users with different education levels. If sonographic visibility is insufficient, CBCT or kV/MV portal imaging with implanted fiducials are recommended.     

肺部肿瘤立体定向放疗技术中基于锥形束CT影像的摆位误差分析

背景与目的:准确的靶区位置是肺部肿瘤立体定向放疗的重要影响因素.该研究旨在分析在肺部肿瘤患者立体定向放疗中基于锥形束CT(cone-beam CT,CBCT)影像的摆位误差及其影响因素.方法:29例单发肺部恶性肿瘤行立体定向放疗的患者,每次放疗前行CBCT扫描,将得到的CBCT图像与定位CT图像匹配,获得前后、头脚和左右方向的摆位误差值,并计算临床靶区(clinical target volume,CTV)外扩至计划靶区(planning target volume,PTV)的边界.同时,还分析对可能影响摆位误差的临床参数等进行分层比较.结果:29例患者共获得155幅CBCT图像.考虑误差方向时前后、头脚和左右方向摆位误差分别为(-1.68±3.62)、(-1.34±3.90)和(0.36±2.15)mm,只考虑误差数值大小时分别为(3.16±2.42)、(3.29±2.48)和(1.74±1.30)mm.根据摆位误差得到CTV外扩至PTV的边界在前后、头脚和左右方向分别为9.6、10.0和5.3 mm.病灶位于周围的肺部肿瘤患者前后方向摆位误差更大(P=0.007),下肺病灶、右肺病灶、肺转移灶在头脚方向摆位误差更大(P=0.008、0.000和0.000).结论:肺部肿瘤患者放疗中的头脚和前后方向摆位误差较大,立体定向放疗需采用锥形束CT扫描、呼吸控制等技术以减少摆位误差.     

Portal imaging based definition of the planning target volume during pelvic irradiation for gynecological malignancies.

PURPOSE: Geometrical accuracy in patient positioning can vary substantially during external radiotherapy. This study estimated the set-up accuracy during pelvic irradiation for gynecological malignancies for determination of safety margins (planning target volume, PTV). METHODS AND MATERIALS: Based on electronic portal imaging devices (EPID), 25 patients undergoing 4-field pelvic irradiation for gynecological malignancies were analyzed with regard to set-up accuracy during the treatment course. Regularly performed EPID images were used in order to systematically assess the systematic and random component of set-up displacements. Anatomical matching of verification and simulation images was followed by measuring corresponding distances between the central axis and anatomical features. Data analysis of set-up errors referred to the x-, y-,and z-axes. Additionally, cumulative frequencies were evaluated. RESULTS: A total of 50 simulation films and 313 verification images were analyzed. For the anterior-posterior (AP) beam direction mean deviations along the x- and z-axes were 1.5 mm and -1.9 mm, respectively. Moreover, random errors of 4.8 mm (x-axis) and 3.0 mm (z-axis) were determined. Concerning the latero-lateral treatment fields, the systematic errors along the two axes were calculated to 2.9 mm (y-axis) and -2.0 mm (z-axis) and random errors of 3.8 mm and 3.5 mm were found, respectively. The cumulative frequency of misalignments < or =5 mm showed values of 75% (AP fields) and 72% (latero-lateral fields). With regard to cumulative frequencies < or =10 mm quantification revealed values of 97% for both beam directions. CONCLUSION: During external pelvic irradiation therapy for gynecological malignancies, EPID images on a regular basis revealed acceptable set-up inaccuracies. Safety margins (PTV) of 1 cm appear to be sufficient, accounting for more than 95% of all deviations.     

Quality assurance of a system for improved target localization and patient set-up that combines real-time infrared tracking and stereoscopic X-ray imaging.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The aim of this study is to investigate the positional accuracy of a prototype X-ray imaging tool in combination with a real-time infrared tracking device allowing automated patient set-up in three dimensions. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prototype X-ray imaging tool has been integrated with a commercially released real-time infrared tracking device. The system, consisting of two X-ray tubes mounted to the ceiling and a centrally located amorphous silicon detector has been developed for automated patient positioning from outside the treatment room prior to treatment. Two major functions are supported: (a) automated fusion of the actual treatment images with digitally reconstructed radiographs (DRRs) representing the desired position; (b) matching of implanted radio opaque markers. Measurements of known translational (up to 30.0mm) and rotational (up to 4.0 degrees ) set-up errors in three dimensions as well as hidden target tests have been performed on anthropomorphic phantoms. RESULTS: The system's accuracy can be represented with the mean three-dimensional displacement vector, which yielded 0.6mm (with an overall SD of 0.9mm) for the fusion of DRRs and X-ray images. Average deviations between known translational errors and calculations varied from -0.3 to 0.6mm with a standard deviation in the range of 0.6-1.2mm. The marker matching algorithm yielded a three-dimensional uncertainty of 0.3mm (overall SD: 0.4mm), with averages ranging from 0.0 to 0.3mm and a standard deviation in the range between 0.3 and 0.4mm. CONCLUSIONS: The stereoscopic X-ray imaging device integrated with the real-time infrared tracking device represents a positioning tool allowing for the geometrical accuracy that is required for conformal radiation therapy of abdominal and pelvic lesions, within an acceptable time-frame.