Quarantine for SARS, Taiwan

During the 2003 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Taiwan, >150,000 persons were quarantined, 24 of whom were later found to have laboratory-confirmed SARS-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection. Since no evidence exists that SARS-CoV is infective before the onset of symptoms and the quarantined persons were exposed but not symptomatic, we thought the quarantine's effectiveness should be investigated. Using the Taiwan quarantine data, we found that the onset-to-diagnosis time of previously quarantined confirmed case-patients was significantly shortened compared to that for those who had not been quarantined. Thus, quarantine for SARS in Taiwan screened potentially infective persons for swift diagnosis and hospitalization after onset, thereby indirectly reducing infections. Full-scale quarantine measures implemented on April 28 led to a significant improvement in onset-to-diagnosis time of all SARS patients, regardless of previous quarantine status. We discuss the temporal effects of quarantine measures and other interventions on detection and isolation as well as the potential usefulness of quarantine in faster identification of persons with SARS and in improving isolation measures.     

广州市医务人员传染性非典型肺炎流行情况及预防控制效果分析

目的 分析广州市医务人员传染性生非典型肺炎(SARS)流行的基本特征，探讨流行因素，评价防制措施，为医疗卫生单位开展SARS收治及预防控制工作提供指导。方法 采用统一调查表对医务人员SARS患进行流行病学调查，采用定性生研究方法对医院SARS流行影响因素、预防控制措施及其效果进行调查，资料采用描述性流行病学方法分析。结果 广州市医务人员首例SARS患发病时间为2003年1月13日，截止5月5日共有29家医疗卫生单位报告医护人员发病280例，占全市总病例数的26．07％。医务人员发病高峰在2月上、中旬，共有167例，占医务人员发病总数的59．64％，呈明显聚集性。4月后病例为零星散发。病例主要集中在1月下旬前开始收治SARS患(对SARS尚缺乏认识的时期)的6家医院，占总病例数的73．2％(2c15／280)。调查180例医务人员SARS患中92．22％直接参与过SARS患的救治工作。采取定点收治患、加强医院病区通风、加强医护人员自身的个人防护等综合措施后，2月下旬开始，医务人员的新发SARS病例明显减少。结论 控制SARS在医务人员中流行的关键措施是：(1)要对出现SARS症状的患高度警惕，及时诊断并隔离患；(2)严格按照操作规范做好个人防护措施；(3)收治区要合理布局，严格区分污染区、半污染区和清洁区；(4)加强病区通风换气；(5)严格按照有关指引做好污染物、空气及环境的消毒工作。     

Control of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome in Singapore

A Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak occurred in Singapore from February to May 2003. A high vigilance for the disease, frequent and regular temperature monitoring, early case identification and isolation of patients, as well as tracing and home quarantine of contacts, played major roles in controlling the outbreak. Hospitals were dedicated to the screening and treatment of SARS patients. Within and between hospitals, movement by healthcare workers, patients and visitors were restricted, as was the number of hospital visitors. Staff education and audits of infection control practices also featured prominently. To prevent cross-border transmission, incoming travellers from SARS affected areas had to complete health declaration cards. They, as well as all outgoing travellers from Singapore, were monitored for fever. In the meantime, the public was urged to refrain from travelling to SARS affected regions. Containment elements targeting the community included school closure, public education on good hygiene and readily accessible public information. In response to a laboratory acquired SARS infection, laboratories were audited, and directives issued on the mandatory use of biosafety level 3 laboratories for SARS virus culture, and compliance of laboratory workers to biosafety guidelines.     

Influenza and SARS: the impact of viral pandemics on maritime health

Global travel and transport play a critical role in the spread of infections. We see this clearly in the first two pandemics of the 21st century: SARS and influenza H1N1-2009. Although air travel contributed to dissemination in these two pandemics, the travel restrictions, quarantines, and heightened vigilance which resulted had an impact on maritime health. Seasonal, pandemic, and avian influenza have some important differences with regards to exposure risks, infectivity, and severity. Most of the data for maritime influenza outbreaks focus on seasonal influenza on cruise ships, but influenza among crew members occurs due to close working conditions and is potentially preventable with staff vaccination programs. To date, avian influenza has low human-to-human transmission; infection typically requires close contact with poultry, but presents with severe disease and a high fatality rate. Pandemic (swine) influenza was readily transmitted between people, including young adults, and caused severe illness in high-risk groups including pregnant women, children, and those with co-morbidities and obesity. In contrast, SARS had lower infectivity compared to influenza, and a longer incubation period. These characteristics slowed its propagation enough that outbreak control measures, such as isolation of infected cases and quarantine of exposed but well persons, were effective in terminating this pandemic. No effective vaccine exists for SARS at this time, whereas countries were able to deploy millions of doses of pandemic influenza vaccine within 7 months after the outbreak was first recognized in Mexico. The lack of a protective vaccine and the higher case fatality rate in SARS will mean that stringent quarantine measures may still be required for outbreak control if SARS ever occurs again. Compliance with international health regulations, and the ability to adapt these to maritime health needs, will be important in the shipping industry.     

Severe acute respiratory syndrome, Beijing, 2003

The largest outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) struck Beijing in spring 2003. Multiple importations of SARS to Beijing initiated transmission in several healthcare facilities. Beijing's outbreak began March 5; by late April, daily hospital admissions for SARS exceeded 100 for several days; 2,521 cases of probable SARS occurred. Attack rates were highest in those 20-39 years of age; 1% of cases occurred in children <10 years. The case-fatality rate was highest among patients >65 years (27.7% vs. 4.8% for those 20-64 years, p < 0.001). Healthcare workers accounted for 16% of probable cases. The proportion of case-patients without known contact to a SARS patient increased significantly in May. Implementation of early detection, isolation, contact tracing, quarantine, triage of case-patients to designated SARS hospitals, and community mobilization ended the outbreak.     

SARS病区医院感染控制与管理

目的 探讨和总结SARS流行期间，医院感染控制与管理的方法和经验。方法 建立规范隔离病区、制定严格消毒隔离制度和规范消毒方法、采取严格患者管理、有效切断传播途径、加强医护人员防护等综合控制医院感染措施。结果 避免了SARS在医院内的传播，有效预防了医护人员与患者间的交叉感染。结论 加强医院感染控制与管理，针对SARS传播特点，制定科学的消毒隔离制度及医护人员防护措施，对控制SARS医院感染具有重要的作用。     

广东省传染性非典型肺炎预防控制策略探讨

目的 探讨广东省传染性非典型肺炎(SARS)的预防控制策略和效果。方法 分析广东省SARS疫情和制定预防控制措施。结果 2002年11月16日至200B年5月30日，全省共发生SARS病例1511例，死亡57例，累计发病率1．98／10万。全省21个市中有15个市报告病例，病例主要集中在珠江三角洲地区，其中广州市占86．04％。发病以医务人员为主，占22．90％；病例主要集中在20～39岁，占50．95％；出现明显的医院或家庭聚集性。采取预防控制的策略及效果：加强党政的正确领导，各有关部门密切配合，正确把握舆论导向等组织策略；加强技术指导，重视疫情监测报告，采取综合性预防控制措施(加强医院感染控制、早发现和就地隔离治疗病人、小范围隔离观察密切接触者、强调室内通风、注意个人卫生、增强体质)，加强调查研究和科研攻关，发动全社会共同参与等技术策略。预防控制策略实施后，全省日均发病数从2月份的25．6例下降到5月份的0．3例；医务人员所占比例由1月及以前的30．8％下降到5月份未有医务人员感染；未出现住宅小区或学校聚集性暴发的情况。结论 广东省首次出现SARS暴发流行，通过采取一系列行之有效的组织和技术策略后，广东省SARS疫情初步得到有效控制。各级党政的高度重视和正确领导是做好SARS防治工作强有力的保证。加强SARS防治工作的技术指导，重视疫情监测报告，切实落实有效的综合性预防控制措施，尤其是加强医院感染控制是防制措施的关键。     

Rapid Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 in Detention Facility,Louisiana, USA,May–June, 2020

To assess transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in a detention facility experiencing a coronavirus disease outbreak and evaluate testing strategies, we conducted a prospective cohort investigation in a facility in Louisiana, USA. We conducted SARS-CoV-2 testing for detained persons in 6 quarantined dormitories at various time points. Of 143 persons, 53 were positive at the initial test, and an additional 58 persons were positive at later time points (cumulative incidence 78%). In 1 dormitory, all 45 detained persons initially were negative; 18 days later, 40 (89%) were positive. Among persons who were SARS-CoV-2 positive, 47% (52/111) were asymptomatic at the time of specimen collection; 14 had replication-competent virus isolated. Serial SARS-CoV-2 testing might help interrupt transmission through medical isolation and quarantine. Testing in correctional and detention facilities will be most effective when initiated early in an outbreak, inclusive of all exposed persons, and paired with infection prevention and control.     

Modelling potential responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome in Japan: the role of initial attack size, precaution, and quarantine

BACKGROUND: There has been an outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) worldwide. With the use of detailed epidemiological data from other countries, this article describes the possible reason for the SARS epidemic not appearing in Japan, and simulates the impact of different control strategies that can break the transmission cycle of SARS associated coronavirus. METHOD: Mathematical modelling is used for predicting the epidemiological outcome and simultaneously for evaluating the effect of interventions on SARS. The study estimates the initial attack size that would result in failed invasion. Three different interventions have been incorporated into the public health response policies; precautionary public health measures, isolation of infected people, and quarantine of exposed humans. RESULTS: The maximum number of humans newly infected could be roughly estimated on the basis of the initial attack size, using simple formulas. It is seen that the introduction of only a few cases into certain communities would not lead easily to an epidemic. The possible trajectories of SARS epidemic depend on the levels of public health interventions as quarantine and precautionary public health measures greatly affected the transmissibility of the disease. It is shown that there exist threshold levels of interventions at which the SARS epidemic settles down. CONCLUSION: Initial attack size is one of the determinants of whether SARS can successfully invade the community or not. Two of the most effective policy procedures to prevent new infections would be to apply stringent precautionary measures and to impose quicker and more effective quarantine of the exposed populace.     

天津市传染性非典型肺炎流行特点及主要控制措施效果评价

目的：分析天津市传染性非典型肺炎[严重急性呼吸综合征(SARS)]流行病学特征，对主要控制措施的效果进行初步评价。方法：采用自行设计的病例报告表，全市统一的流行病学个案调查表及病例接触者、密切接触者树状分布图，深入病房、家庭、社区、团体等对病例及接触者进行调查。结果：以发病时间计算，自2003年4月13日至5月8日，包括输入病例在内发病175例，发病率为1．9／10万，其中死亡14例，病死率达8．O％。整个流行过程不足1个月，流行特点：1例“超级传播者”直接或间接传染了全市94．3％的病例；呈现以A、B、C 3家医院聚集发病为特点的爆发性流行，占全市病例的68．6％，3家医院外的家庭聚集发病占全市病例的14．3％，同事间传播为2．3％，散发者为9．1％，这些散发者未造成接触者感染；早期医务人员发病较多，占总病例数的38．2％，流行全过程参加SARS救治工作的1975名医护人员的总感染率为3．4％；全部流行过程传染源明确，传染链清晰，全市仅3例患者未找到传染源，占病例总数的2％；在10例源头病例中仅“超级传播者”和另一病例传染了其接触者，其他传染源由于及时隔离未造成任何传播。结论：SARS是严重急性呼吸系统传染病，如能及时准确地掌握传染链并进行范围适当、及时有效的封闭及隔离措施，以科学的方法提高全民的警觉度，传染链可能在较短时间内被切断，从而控制传播。     

医务人员感染传染性非典型肺炎的影响因素分析

目的　分析医务人员感染传染性非典型肺炎 (SARS)的影响因素 ,为控制SARS在院内的传播 ,降低医护人员的SARS发病率和医院内感染水平提供一定的参考依据。方法　采用整群抽样方法抽取了广东省 9家医院 ,问卷调查了 9家医院中接触过SARS病人的 164 5名医务人员以及相关的科室。对影响医务人员感染SARS的因素进行了非条件Logistic回归的多因素分析。结果　共筛选出 7个可能与感染SARS有关的因素分别是 :医务人员的职业 (医生、护士和护理员 ) ,参与吸痰操作 ,诊治SARS病人时是否戴眼罩 ,洗手装置 ,隔离服的层数 ,通常戴口罩个数和初始接触病人是否戴口罩。在调查的 48个科室中 ,81.3 %的科室进行了严格的隔离分区 ,80 %的房间能够经常开窗通风 ,83 .3 % (4 0 /4 8)的科室使用紫外灯消毒 ,91.7% (4 4 /4 8)的科室使用过氧乙酸熏蒸喷雾消毒剂消毒 ,3 9.6%的科室使用循环风紫外线消毒。结论　医务人员应采取严格的分级防护措施 ;医院的科室应加强隔离与消毒措施 ;采取综合防治措施以确保医务人员的健康与安全     

Use of quarantine to prevent transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome--Taiwan, 2003

On July 5, 2003, Taiwan was removed from the World Health Organization (WHO) list of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-affected countries. As of July 9, a total of 671 probable cases of SARS had been reported in Taiwan. On February 21, the first identified SARS patient in Taiwan returned from travel to Guangdong Province, mainland China, by way of Hong Kong. Initial efforts to control SARS appeared to be effective; these efforts included isolation of suspect and probable SARS patients, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) for health-care workers (HCWs) and visitors, and quarantine of contacts of known SARS patients. However, beginning in mid-April, unrecognized cases of SARS led to a large nosocomial cluster and subsequent SARS-associated coronavirus transmission to other health-care facilities and community settings. In response to the growing epidemic, additional measures were taken to limit nosocomial and community transmission of SARS, including more widespread use of quarantine. By the end of the epidemic, 131,132 persons had been placed in quarantine, including 50,319 close contacts of SARS patients and 80,813 travelers from WHO-designated SARS-affected areas. This report describes the quarantine measures used in Taiwan and discusses the need for further evaluation of quarantine and other control measures used to prevent SARS.     

How did general practitioners protect themselves, their family, and staff during the SARS epidemic in Hong Kong?

CONTEXT: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a newly emerging infectious disease and how the frontline community doctors respond to it is not known. OBJECTIVES: To explore the impact of SARS on general practitioners (GPs) in Hong Kong. DESIGN: A cross sectional survey. SETTING: Community based primary care clinics. PARTICIPANTS: 183 family medicine tutors affiliated with a local university. Postal survey sent to all tutors with a 74.8% response rate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Change of clinical behaviour and practices during the epidemic; anxiety level of primary care doctors. RESULTS: All agreed SARS had changed their clinical practices. Significant anxiety was found in family doctors. Three quarters of respondents recalled requesting more investigations while a quarter believed they had over-prescribed antibiotics. GPs who were exposed to SARS or who had worked in high infection districts were less likely to quarantine themselves (10.8% versus 33.3%; p<0.01; 6.5% versus 27.5%; p<0.01 respectively). Exposure to SARS, the infection rates in their working district, and anxiety levels had significant impact on the level of protection or prescribing behaviour. CONCLUSION: The clinical practice of GPs changed significantly as a result of SARS. Yet, those did not quarantine themselves suggesting other factors may have some part to play. As failure to apply isolation precautions to suspected cases of SARS was one major reason for its spread, a contingency plan from the government to support family doctors is of utmost importance. Interface between private and public sectors are needed in Hong Kong to prepare for any future epidemics.     

Hospital preparedness and SARS

On May 23, 2003, Toronto experienced the second phase of a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak. Ninety cases were confirmed, and >620 potential cases were managed. More than 9,000 persons had contact with confirmed or potential case-patients; many required quarantine. The main hospital involved during the second outbreak was North York General Hospital. We review this hospital's response to, and management of, this outbreak, including such factors as building preparation and engineering, personnel, departmental workload, policies and documentation, infection control, personal protective equipment, training and education, public health, management and administration, follow-up of SARS patients, and psychological and psychosocial management and research. We also make recommendations for other institutions to prepare for future outbreaks, regardless of their origin.     

Public health measures implemented during the SARS outbreak in Singapore, 2003

The SARS outbreak hit Singapore between March and May 2003. Public health control measures were applied along three fronts; prevention and control within healthcare settings, community and at the borders. Nosocomial spread composed majority of SARS cases in Singapore. To prevent infection within healthcare facilities, cases were centralized in a SARS-designated hospital, a no-visitors rule was applied and movement of patients and healthcare staff were restricted. For triaging purposes, fever clinics were established. A dedicated ambulance service was used to transport possible cases to the SARS-designated hospital. Hospitals were surveyed for fever clusters. The challenge was to identify cases with atypical presentation. Effective and safe discharge criteria were established from the lessons learnt. To prevent community spread, contacts of cases were stringently traced, quarantined in their homes and monitored daily. For prompt identification of a case and to reduce the time between onset of symptoms and isolation, the Infectious Diseases Act was amended. A large wholesale market closure resulted in massive quarantine thereby limiting the spread of infection. A mass education campaign was implemented in order to educate and raise awareness of the public. At all air, sea and land points-of-entry, exit and entry screening took place that resulted in zero importation and exportation of SARS cases after implementation of screening. Coordinated effort of the cross sectional inter-ministerial collaboration and strong coordination by the Task Force and commitment from different professionals made it possible to conquer the disease.     

呼吸重症监护病房多药耐药鲍氏不动杆菌医院感染暴发流行调查及控制对策

目的 总结呼吸重症监护病房(RICU)多药耐药鲍氏不动杆菌(MDRABA)医院感染暴发流行的原因,探讨防控的有效对策.方法 对RICU 2009年4月3-30日机械通气患者发生下呼吸道MDRABA感染进行流行病学调查.结果 27 d连续发生6例机械通气患者下呼吸道MDRABA感染,其中5例治愈,1例原发病重自动出院;6例患者下呼吸道痰标本中均分离出相同耐药谱的MDRABA.结论 医务人员诊疗操作中洗手缺乏依从性和规范性;室内环境、空气消毒机监管不力是引起此次机械通气患者下呼吸道MDRABA感染暴发流行的主要原因;应严格隔离患者,加强全员执行洗手的依从性和规范性教育,对住院患者进行常规多药耐药菌筛选,采取早期干预措施,预防医院感染暴发流行.     

Impact of public health interventions in controlling the spread of SARS: modelling of intervention scenarios

A variety of intervention measures exist to prevent and control diseases with pandemic potential like SARS or pandemic influenza. They differ in their approach and effectiveness in reducing the number of cases getting infected. The effects of different intervention measures were investigated by a mathematical modelling approach, with comparisons based on the effective reproduction number (R(e)). The analysis showed that early case detection followed by strict isolation could control a SARS outbreak. Tracing close contacts of cases and contacts of exposed health care workers additionally reduces the R(e). Tracing casual contacts and measures aiming to decrease social interaction were less effective in reducing the number of SARS cases. The study emphasizes the importance of early identification and isolation of SARS cases to reduce the number of people getting infected. However, doing so transfers cases to health care facilities, making infection control measures in hospitals essential to avoid nosocomial spread. The modelling approach applied in this study is useful for analysing interactions of different intervention measures for reducing the R(e) of SARS.     

Nosocomial acquisition of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus during an outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The four hospitals assessed in this study use active surveillance cultures for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and contact precautions for MRSA-positive patients as part of routine infection control practices. The objective of this study was to determine whether nosocomial acquisition of MRSA decreased in these hospitals during an outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) when barrier precautions were routinely used for all patients. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Three tertiary-care hospitals (a 1100-bed hospital; a 500-bed hospital; and an 823-bed hospital) and a 430-bed community hospital, each located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. PATIENTS: All admitted patients were included. RESULTS: The nosocomial rate of MRSA in all four hospitals combined during the SARS outbreak (3.7 per 10,000 patient-days) was not significantly different from that before (4.7 per 10,000 patient-days) or after (3.4 per 10,000 patient-days) the outbreak (P = .30 and P = .76, respectively). The nosocomial rate of MRSA after the outbreak was significantly lower than that before the outbreak (P = .003). Inappropriate reuse of gloves and gowns and failure to wash hands between patients on non-SARS wards were observed during the outbreak. Increased attention was paid to infection control education following the outbreak. CONCLUSIONS: Inappropriate reuse of gloves and gowns and failure to wash hands between patients may have contributed to transmission of MRSA during the SARS outbreak. Attention should be paid to training healthcare workers regarding the appropriate use of precautions as a means to protect themselves and patients.     

SARS preparedness. Revisiting the procedures to protect staff and help prevent or contain an outbreak

Last year, more than 8,000 people worldwide contracted severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), leading to 774 deaths. Although transmission of the disease was quickly controlled, with the outbreak declared over by July, there is concern that SARS could in fact be a seasonal disease and that another outbreak could occur in 2004. In early January, Chinese health officials confirmed the first non-laboratory-related SARS case since the initial outbreak was contained. The threat of another outbreak underscores the importance of having a response plan in place to safeguard the health of your community and your staff. In this article, we discuss the latest information on the risks of acquiring SARS, review recent recommendations from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), discuss the role of hospital facility and clinical engineers in SARS preparations, and update ECRI's recommendations for infection control procedures during equipment servicing. (ECRI first addressed this issue in two June 2003 Health Devices Guidance Articles.) In two appendixes to the current article, we present CDC guidance on patient isolation in an airborne infection isolation room and offer a navigational guide to CDC's SARS Web site.