Evolution of arthritis of the wrist

Degenerative arthritis of the wrist follows very specific patterns from onset to terminal severe bone and joint destruction. About 95% of them occur as periscaphoid area problems: SLAC (scapholunate advanced collapse pattern) wrist (55%), triscaphe arthritis (26%), and a combination of the two (14%). In SLAC wrist, the repeating sequence of degenerative change is based on and caused by articular alignment problems between the scaphoid and the radius. Changes then progress between the capitate and the lunate that are secondary to carpal collapse. In triscaphe arthritis, the degenerative change is limited to between the trapezium, trapezoid, and distal scaphoid. SLAC procedure (fusion of the capitate, lunate, hamate, and triquetrum along with silastic scaphoid implant) for SLAC wrists and triscaphe arthrodesis (fusion of the scaphoid, trapezium, and trapezoid) for triscaphe arthritis, are designed to make maximum use of undamaged structures and to maintain full-power, painless, mobile human wrists.     

Operative technique of a new decompression procedure for Kienböck disease: partial capitate shortening

A new decompression procedure for Kienb?ck disease, namely "partial capitate shortening," was developed. Patients in Lichtman stages 2 and 3A, independent of the ulnar variance, are candidates for this procedure. This procedure can dramatically reduce compressive forces on the lunate almost as much as a traditional decompression procedure of the capitate (capitate shortening combined with capitate-hamate fusion) and much more than the decompression procedure of the forearm bone such as radial shortening. We surmise that our procedure will allow better lunate revascularization. Although the scaphoid progressively adopts an abnormal palmarflexed position after capitate shortening combined with capitate-hamate fusion, partial capitate shortening can maintain normal carpal alignment, resulting in better joint congruency around the scaphoid and range of motion of the wrist. Moreover, partial capitate shortening allows minimal invasion and is an easy technique without bone grafting. Both operating and immobilizing time are shortened, and there are no secondary problems in the distal radioulnar and/or ulnocarpal joint often seen after radial osteotomy procedures.     

Kinematics of the midcarpal and radiocarpal joints in radioulnar deviation: an in vitro study

PURPOSE: Carpal kinematics have been studied widely yet remain difficult to understand fully. The noninvasive measurement of carpal kinematics through medical imaging has become popular. Studies have shown that with radial deviation the scaphoid and lunate flex whereas the capitate moves radiodorsally relative to the lunate. This study investigated the midcarpal and radiocarpal contributions to radial and ulnar deviation of the wrist. This was accomplished through noninvasive characterization of the scaphoid, lunate, and capitate using 3-dimensional medical imaging of the wrist in radial and ulnar deviation. METHODS: Eight fresh-frozen and thawed cadaveric wrists were used in an experimental set-up that positioned the wrist through spring-scale actuation of the 4 wrist flexor and extensor tendon groups. The wrists were scanned by computed tomography in neutral and full radial and ulnar deviation. Body mass-based local coordinate systems were used to track the motion of the capitate, lunate, and scaphoid with the radius as a fixed reference. Helical axis motion and Euler angles were calculated from neutral to radial and ulnar deviation for the capitate relative to the radius, lunate, and scaphoid and for the lunate and scaphoid relative to the radius. RESULTS: The capitate, scaphoid, and lunate moved in a characteristic manner relative to the radius and to one another. Radial and ulnar deviation occurred primarily in the midcarpal joint. Midcarpal motion accounted for 60% of radial deviation and 86% of ulnar deviation. In radial deviation the proximal row flexed and the capitate extended; the converse was true in ulnar deviation. CONCLUSIONS: Radioulnar deviation (in-plane motion) occurred mostly through the midcarpal joint, with a lesser contribution from the radiocarpal joint. The results of our study agree with previous investigations that found the scaphoid and lunate flex in radial deviation (out-of-plane motion) relative to the radius whereas the capitate extends (out-of-plane motion) relative to the scaphoid/lunate (with the converse occurring in ulnar deviation). Our study shows how these out-of-plane motions combine to produce in-plane wrist radioulnar deviation. The use of 3-dimensional visualization greatly aids in the understanding of these motions. The results of our study may be useful clinically in understanding the consequences of isolated midcarpal fusions in the treatment of wrist instability.     

Kienb?ck's disease

Kienb?ck's disease is an isolated disorder of the lunate resulting from vascular compromise to the bone. The symptoms include wrist pain, limited range of motion, and decreased grip strength. The diagnosis is made from characteristic changes seen in the lunate on radiograms of the wrist. The severity of the disease can be categorized by staging the degree of involvement. This is helpful in guiding the practitioner through the maze of treatment options. Initial treatment of Kienb?ck's disease is conservative and includes immobilization, analgesics, and/or anti-inflammatory medication. If symptoms are not relieved, then based on the degree of involvement, several surgical options exist that will provide a successful result. These include autogenous tendon replacement arthroplasty, revascularization, radial shortening, ulnar lengthening, limited intercarpal arthrodesis, and silicone replacement arthroplasty. Salvage procedures for Kienb?ck's disease include wrist denervation, wrist arthrodesis, and proximal-row carpectomy. Currently, we prefer immobilization for treatment of stage I Kienb?ck's disease. For stage II, a revascularization procedure may be attempted or ulnar lengthening/radial shortening done, particularly if there is significant negative ulnar variance. In stage III, replacement arthroplasty and/or limited intercarpal arthrodesis is our treatment of choice, and for stage IV, one of the salvage procedures is indicated.     

Three-corner wrist fusion using memory staples

Scapholunate dissociation with advanced collapse (SLAC), scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse (SNAC), and lunotriquetral advanced collapse (LTAC) of the carpus are challenging problems. Various treatment options have been described. We describe a technique of 3-corner wrist fusion, using memory staples. The scaphoid and triquetrum are resected, and the capitate is fused to the lunate. Articular cartilage is removed from the capitolunate joint, and the bones are shaped to conforming surfaces. Bone graft from the resected triquetrum and scaphoid is used to increase fusion rate and a dynamic compressive fixation force is applied due to the unique properties of the memory staples. The main advantages of this procedure include the following: retained anatomical articulation between the lunate and the lunate fossa on the radius, improved ulnar deviation due to the resection of the triquetrum, and an excellent fusion rate between the lunate and capitate due to the dynamic fixation, the conforming surfaces, and the use of autologous bone graft.     

部分腕骨融合术或切除术对腕关节运动影响的实验研究

目的 研究临床常用的部分腕骨融合术或切除术对腕关节运动的影响程度。方法 将１２侧新鲜上肢处理后,固定于特制的测试架上,在腕背部打入２根或多根克氏针,作舟头骨、舟大小多角骨、舟月骨、月三解骨、桡月骨、ｆｏｕｒ ｃｏｒｎｅｒ、头月骨融合术、舟骨切除＋ｆｏｕｒ ｃｏｒｎｅｒ、舟骨切除＋头月融合术。观测腕关节正常运动活动范围,及作上述不同部分腕骨融合术后腕关节屈曲、伸腕、尺偏、桡偏度数。结果 桡舟月骨融合     

Scapho-capitate fracture syndrome. A case report

A rare injury of the wrist, scapho-capitate fracture syndrome, in a young patient is reported. Despite early recognition of the injury and surgical intervention, the scaphoid fracture did not unite and another attempt to achieve union with bone grafting and internal fixation also failed. The wrist continued to be painful and stiff. Radiographs of the wrist, 18 months after the injury, showed nonunion of the scaphoid, avascular necrosis of the scaphoid and the lunate and carpal collapse with midcarpal joint arthritis. Due to persistent and disabling symptoms arthrodesis of the wrist had to be carried out. Possible causes for the bad outcome after this injury are discussed. We recommend open reduction for the fracture of the capitate and open reduction and internal fixation with primary bone grafting for a displaced comminuted scaphoid fracture.     

Partial arthrodesis of the wrist: An investigation in cadavers

Partial arthrodesis of the wrist was performed on six cadavers in order to study the residual excursion of the wrist. Arthrodesis between the radius and scaphoid left 40 per cent extension/flexion and 61 per cent radial/ulnar deviation. Arthrodesis between the radius, scaphoid and lunate left 36 per cent extension/flexion and 59 per cent radial/ulnar deviation. Arthrodesis between the capitate, scaphoid and lunate left 59 per cent extension/flexion and 91 per cent radial/ulnar deviation.     

Kienbock's disease

Kienbock's disease (lunate malacia) is an unusual but not rare cause of wrist pain. It is manifested by avascular necrosis and subsequent disintegration of the lunate. Despite recognition of this disease entity for the past 70 years, its cause is still debated. Most investigators relate it to a stress fracture that leads to devascularization of the major segment of the lunate if the lunate is supplied by one volar vessel. The classification of Kienbock's disease is based on its roentgenologic appearance. Stage 1 consists of small fracture lines. Stage 2 is rarification along the fracture line, usually on the volar pole. Stage 3 shows sclerosis of the bone dorsal to the fracture site. Stage 4 shows sclerosis of the bone dorsal to the fracture site, and collapse and secondary fracture with loss of architectural integrity of the lunate. Stage 5 shows secondary arthritic changes of the radius. Treatment is categorized into two general types. The first is an attempt to allow revascularization of the lunate be relieving the compression forces. This is accomplished by lengthening the ulna and/or shortening the radius, with capitate-hamate fusion; or by shortening the capitate and fusing the capitate and hamate. These procedures are performed in the early stages of Kienbock's disease. The second type of treatment, used in more advanced cases, includes excision of the lunate: replacement of the lunate by prosthesis, with or without capitate shortening and/or capitate-hamate fusion; and various types of intercarpal fusion.     

In vivo scaphoid, lunate, and capitate kinematics in flexion and in extension

Carpal kinematics have been previously limited to in vitro models with cadaveric specimens. Using a newly developed markerless bone registration algorithm, we noninvasively studied the in vivo kinematics of the capitate, scaphoid, and lunate during wrist extension and flexion in both wrists of 5 men and 5 women. Computed tomography volume images were acquired in neutral and in 2 positions in both extension and flexion. The 3-dimensional kinematics of the capitate, scaphoid, and lunate relative to the radius were the determined. Scaphoid and lunate rotations differed for flexion and extension but were found to vary linearly with capitate rotation. In flexion the scaphoid contributed 73% of capitate motion and the lunate contributed 46%. In extension the scaphoid contributed 99% of capitate motion and the lunate contributed 68%. Contributions of the scaphoid and lunate to wrist extension were 15% greater than values reported in previous in vitro studies, while scaphoid and lunate contributions to wrist flexion were more similar to previous studies. The findings support a relative "engagement" of the scaphoid, capitate, and lunate during wrist extension. The only difference between male and female kinematics was a more distal location of the rotation axes; we believe this was due to a difference in carpal bone size, not gender. This study reports the 3-dimensional in vivo measurement of carpal motion using a noninvasive technology. This technique may prove useful in the study of more complex motions of the hand and wrist and of the abnormal kinematics that occur following ligamentous injury.     

Kinematics of the midcarpal and radiocarpal joint in flexion and extension: an in vitro study

PURPOSE: To apply carpal kinematic analysis using noninvasive medical imaging to investigate the midcarpal and radiocarpal contributions to wrist flexion and extension in a quasidynamic in vitro model. METHODS: Eight fresh-frozen cadaver wrists were scanned with computed tomography in neutral, full flexion, and full extension. Body-mass-based local coordinate systems were used to track motion of the capitate, lunate, and scaphoid with the radius as a fixed reference. Helical axis motion parameters and Euler angles were calculated for flexion and extension. RESULTS: Minimal out-of-plane carpal motion was noted with the exception of small amounts of ulnar deviation and supination in flexion. Overall wrist flexion was 68 degrees +/- 12 degrees and extension was 50 degrees +/- 12 degrees. In flexion, 75% of wrist motion occurred at the radioscaphoid joint, and 50% occurred at the radiolunate joint. In extension, 92% of wrist motion occurred at the radioscaphoid joint, and 52% occurred at the radiolunate joint. Midcarpal flexion/extension between the capitate and scaphoid was 0 degrees +/- 5 degrees in extension and 10 degrees +/- 13 degrees in flexion. Midcarpal flexion/extension between the capitate and lunate was larger, with 15 degrees +/- 11 degrees in extension and 22 degrees +/- 19 degrees in flexion. CONCLUSIONS: The capitate and scaphoid tend to move together. This results in greater flexion/extension for the scaphoid than the lunate at the radiocarpal joint. The lunate has greater midcarpal motion between it and the capitate than the scaphoid does with the capitate. The engagement between the scaphoid and capitate is particularly evident during wrist extension. Out-of-plane motion was primarily ulnar deviation at the radiocarpal joint during flexion. These results are clinically useful in understanding the consequences of isolated fusions in the treatment of wrist instability.     

L’ostéotomie du capitatum dans la maladie de Kienböck. Résultats cliniques et radiologiques à cinq ans de recul moyen. À propos de 12 cas

Kienböck's disease could occur pain and reduce wrist's range of motion despite of an early radiologic staging. Usual surgical procedures unload the lunate. Radial shortening is the common procedure in negative ulnar variance. For wrists with neutral or positive ulnar variance, this procedure could produce a distal radio-ulnar discrepancy and an ulnocarpal impingement. We perform, in these cases, a capitate shortening. The goal of this study is to relate the wrist functional outcome and the radiological result in 12 cases. It was a consecutive retrospective study of 12 patients (nine male, three female). Eight Lichtman's stage II and four stage III A with neutral or positive ulnar variance. The wrists were painful and with a reduce range of motion. The surgical procedure consisted in a dorsal approach and a 2-mm shortening osteotomy in the capitate's waist. Bone clips were used for fixation. The follow-up average period was 65.8 months. All patients had pain relief. The wrist's range of motion improved in all cases. Any single complication was noted. The patients recovered their professional or usual occupation with an average of 3.6 months. Lunate's vascularization improved in all cases. Any intracarpal complication or capitate non-union occured. The capitate shortening is a simple and low aggressive procedure. Wrist's functional outcome has good results. We recommend this procedure for symptomatic patients in early Kienböck's disease with neutral or positive ulnar variance.     

The ligaments of the wrist.

The ligaments of the wrist were studied by dissecting ten fixed and seven fresh frozen wrists. In three other specimens multiple cross-sections were prepared. These studies show that the wrist ligaments can be classified into two groups: extrinsic and intrinsic. In the extrinsic group, the deep volar radiocarpal ligaments are three strong and very important structures connecting the radius to the capitate, the radius to the lunate, and, in a deeper layer, the radius to both the scaphoid and the lunate. A ligamentous deficiency was noted frequently between the capitate and the lunate. There also are very strong volar connections between the radius and the medial or ulnar carpus. These studies suggest that certain patients with a generalized ligamentous laxity and weakness will develop a pathological disruption of the volar ligaments with trauma. These torn volar ligaments should be repaired or reconstructed, for repair of only the dorsal ligaments seldom will provide good stability to such wrists.     

Load transfer characteristics of the wrist. Part II. Perilunate instability

An experimental model with a static positioning frame, pressure-sensitive film (Fuji), and a microcomputer-based video digitizing system, previously developed by the two senior authors, was used in this study to examine the effects of increasing perilunate instability on the load transfer characteristics of the wrist. These effects included a significant dorsal ulnar shift of the scaphoid centroid with increasing perilunate instability together with a less dramatic palmar ulnar shift of the lunate centroid. Overall, the scaphoid contact area was found to decrease as the stage of perilunate instability increased, even in ulnar deviation and/or extension, which in the normal wrist was found to be the positions that had the greatest scaphoid contact area. Average pressures in the high pressure zones were found to significantly increase in wrists with a stage III instability compared with normal wrists. An increase in the intercentroid (scaphoid/lunate) distance was most evident with the wrist in 20 degrees extension, neutral radioulnar deviation, and 90 degrees supination.     

In vivo radiocarpal kinematics and the dart thrower's motion

BACKGROUND: Wrist motion is dependent on the complex articulations of the scaphoid and lunate at the radiocarpal joint. However, much of what is known about the radiocarpal joint is limited to the anatomically defined motions of flexion, extension, radial deviation, and ulnar deviation. The purpose of the present study was to determine the three-dimensional in vivo kinematics of the scaphoid and lunate throughout the entire range of wrist motion, with special focus on the dart thrower's wrist motion, from radial extension to ulnar flexion. METHODS: The three-dimensional kinematics of the capitate, scaphoid, and lunate were calculated from serial computed tomography scans of both wrists of fourteen healthy male subjects (average age, 25.6 years; range, twenty-two to thirty-four years) and fourteen healthy female subjects (average age, 23.6 years; range, twenty-one to twenty-eight years), which yielded data on a total of 504 distinct wrist positions. RESULTS: The scaphoid and lunate primarily flexed or extended in all directions of wrist motion, and their rotation varied linearly with the direction of wrist motion (R2= 0.90 and 0.82, respectively). Scaphoid and lunate motion was significantly less along the path of the dart thrower's motion than in any other direction of wrist motion (p < 0.01 for both carpal bones). The scaphoid and lunate translated radially (2 to 4 mm) when extended, but they did not translate appreciably when flexed. CONCLUSIONS: The dart thrower's path defined the transition between flexion and extension rotation of the scaphoid and lunate, and it identified wrist positions at which scaphoid and lunate motion approached zero. These findings indicate that this path of wrist motion confers a unique degree of radiocarpal stability and suggests that this direction, rather than the anatomical directions of wrist flexion-extension and radioulnar deviation, is the primary functional direction of the radiocarpal joint.     

Degenerative arthritis of the wrist: proximal row carpectomy versus scaphoid excision and four-corner arthrodesis

Two cohort populations of 19 patients from separate institutions performing exclusively either a scaphoid excision and 4-corner arthrodesis (lunate, capitate, hamate, and triquetrum) or proximal row carpectomy (PRC) for scapholunate advanced collapse arthritis were compared. There were no preoperative differences with respect to age, gender, dominance, stage of arthritis, or preoperative measures of pain and function. The length of the follow-up period averaged 28 months for the 4-corner arthrodesis group compared with 19 months for the PRC patients. At the follow-up examination wrist motion revealed no significant differences in the flexion-extension arc, averaging 81 degrees in the PRC patients and 80 degrees following 4-corner arthrodesis, which was 62% and 58%, respectively, of the opposite wrist. The 4-corner arthrodesis patients maintained greater radial deviation and total percent radial-ulnar deviation of the wrist. Grip strength averaged 71% for the PRC group compared with 79% for the 4-corner arthrodesis patients. Pain relief was similar using a variety of measures and patient satisfaction was equivalent. Function was similar except that the 4-corner arthrodesis patients scored significantly higher on the mental health component of the short form-36 health status survey. No differences were seen on the physical health component or an outcome scale specifically designed for the wrist. Both PRC and scaphoid excision and 4-corner arthrodesis are motion-preserving options for the treatment of scapholunate advanced collapse arthritis with minimal subjective or objective differences in short-term follow-up evaluations.     

Mediokarpale Teilarthrodese des Handgelenks mittels Spiderplatte

Objective

Pain relief while preserving wrist motion in advanced carpal collapse.

Indications

Advanced carpal collapse stage II/III due to scaphoid non-union, scapholunate ligament tear, idiopathic radiocarpal osteoarthritis, aseptic osteonecrosis of the scaphoid (Preisser??s disease). A relative indication is chronic midcarpal instability.

Contraindications

Osteoarthrisis of the lunate. Radiocarpal instability with ulnar translation of the wrist.

Surgical technique

Dorsal curved incision between the 3rd and 4th dorsal extensor compartment. Partial wrist denervation (posterior interosseous nerve). Raising of a radial pedicled capsule flap. Complete extirpation of the scaphoid without fragmentation. Cartilage removal of all the joint facets for arthrodesis. Reduction of the lunate and temporary fixation with K?wires between the triquetrum and capitate and the triquetrum and lunate. Milling the plate hole exactly in central position of the four carpal bones. The plate should not protrude from the bone to avoid impingement with the dorsal limb of the radius. Transferring of spongiosa harvested from the removed scaphoid into the arthrodesis gap. Fixation of the 8-hole plate with 2?screws in each of the four carpal bones. Fluoroscopy of the screw fitting. Control of the correct wrist articulation (motion test). Lavage of the wrist. Suture of the capsule flap. Redon drain, wound closure, dorsal splinting.

Postoperative management

Dorsal splint for 3?weeks; finger mobilization up to complete fist closure starting on postoperative day?1. From week 4?C6, active wrist motion, from week 7?C10 with increasing load. Return to work after 11?C12 weeks. CT scan in cases of delayed union, abnormal function, or persistence of pain.

Results

Between 2002 and 2008, 36?four-corner fusions (32?male, 4?female) with the spider plate were performed in 24 right and 12 left wrists. The mean age of the patients at surgery was 48?years (range 32?C71?years). Follow-up examinations were performed in 11 patients. The Krimmer and Rudolf scores were determined: 1?excellent, 7?good, 2?satisfactory, and 1?poor result were found. The mean grip strength was 51% relative to the opposite wrist. The mean range of motion (ROM) for wrist extension/flexion was 56% of the opposite side. Wrist extension/flexion averaged 24/0/32° and ulnar/radial deviation was on average 20/0/19°. Pain during activity was on average 2.2 based on the visual analogue scale (0?C10). One delayed bony union due to a screw breakage, which required total wrist fusion, was observed.     

Radiolunate arthrodesis in rheumatoid wrist--the modified Chamay technique with broadening of indications

AIM: Radiolunate arthrodesis (RLA) has become an established surgical technique for stabilising wrists destroyed by RA. Our modified surgical technique with special osteosynthesis material has enabled the spectrum of indications to be expanded to include stage IV a--sagittal instability. METHOD: 44 radiolunate arthrodeses were carried out from 10.96 to 6.98. 19 (43.2%) satisfied the criteria for correction RLA with correction of sagittal instability. All (100%) of the 19 radiolunate arthrodeses were included in a follow-up examination, and all were examined clinically and radiologically at specified intervals. The mean follow-up is 22.8 months. RESULTS: Correction of the lunate drift in the sagittal plane was successful. The radiolunate angle was reduced from a mean 23.7 degrees before surgery to 9.3 degrees afterwards. The lunate drift in the frontal plane, which is shown by the ulnar translation index (UTI) was corrected from an average of 0.35 before surgery to 0.30 afterwards. Restoration of the carpal height by bone grafting from a mean preoperative CHI of 0.47 to 0.50 after surgery was achieved. We discovered one failure, thus the consolidation rate dropped to 94.7%. CONCLUSION: Since the capitate is the centre of rotation and movement at the wrist, a stable central pivot is essential, and correction of sagittal instability is particularly important. This demand can also be met by our modified radiolunate arthrodesis.     

Long-term outcome of radial shortening with or without ulnar shortening for treatment of Kienbock's disease: a 13-25 year follow-up

Fourteen of 35 patients who underwent radial shortening with or without ulnar shortening for the treatment of Kienbock's disease were followed up for a median of 19 (range, 13-25) years. Radial shortening was performed for patients with ulnar negative or neutral variance, and combined shortening of radius and ulna for those with ulnar positive variance. Overall the clinical situation was significantly improved at the final follow-up. There was no significant advanced collapse of the wrists and Lichtman's stage of disease increased in only three cases. Although osteoarthritic changes in the distal radio-ulnar joint progressed in five patients, this may have little influence on clinical outcome. Radial shortening osteotomy is a reliable method for treatment of Kienbock's disease.