Resilience and the course of daily parenting stress in families of young children with intellectual disabilities

Background Parenting stresses have consistently been found to be higher in parents of children with intellectual disabilities (ID); yet, some families are able to be resilient and thrive in the face of these challenges. Despite the considerable research on stress in families of ID, there is still little known about the stability and compensatory factors associated with everyday parenting stresses. Methods Trajectories of daily parenting stress were studied for both mothers and fathers of children with ID across child ages 36–60 months, as were specific familial risk and resilience factors that affect these trajectories, including psychological well‐being of each parent, marital adjustment and positive parent–child relationships. Results Mothers' daily parenting stress significantly increased over time, while fathers' daily parenting stress remained more constant. Decreases in mothers' daily parenting stress trajectory were associated with both mother and father's well‐being and perceived marital adjustment, as well as a positive father–child relationship. However, decreases in fathers' daily parenting stress trajectory were only affected by mother's well‐being and both parents' perceived marital adjustment. Conclusions Parenting stress processes are not shared entirely across the preschool period in parents of children with ID. Although individual parent characteristics and high‐quality dyadic relationships contribute to emerging resilience in parents of children with ID, parents also affect each others' more resilient adaptations in ways that have not been previously considered.     

Parental wellbeing of Iranian families with children who have developmental disabilities

To date, most research with families who have a child with developmental disabilities has been undertaken in English speaking countries. Poorer health, allied with increased levels of stress has been commonly reported for mothers but less is known about the impact on fathers and on overall family functioning. This study aimed to document the correlates of these parental impacts with Iranian mothers and fathers who had children with either intellectual disabilities (ID) or with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In all 121 parents (69 mothers and 52 fathers from 94 families) who had a child with a diagnosis of ADS, along with 115 parents of children with ID (83 mothers and 32 fathers from 101 families) volunteered to take part in the study. Each participant completed through interview standardised rating scales of parenting stress, emotional well-being, family functioning and satisfaction with caring role along with demographic information and details of informal supports. Structural Equation Modeling identified that family functioning was much poorer in families whose child had ASD and both mothers and fathers reported higher levels of stress. Poorer emotional well-being contributed to higher stress and was more frequent among mothers, single parents and those whose children had behaviour problems. Having other dependents living at home and more sources of informal support improved the emotional wellbeing of parents but not their stress or family functioning. Parents who derived greater satisfaction from their caring role tended to have better emotional health and less stress. Although the impact on Iranian parents of having a child with developmental disabilities is broadly similar to those of parents in other cultures, there are indications that children with ASD present distinct challenges to these families. The model derived in this study is a useful guide both for further research as well as family-centred interventions.     

Coping strategy use,personality, and adjustment of parents rearing children with developmental disabilities

Background Parents rearing children with developmental disabilities encounter stressors that require coping and adaptation. In Glidden et al. 2006 , the use of problem‐focused coping strategies was more often associated with positive adjustment outcomes than was the use of emotion‐focused coping strategies, and parental personality was shown to influence outcomes, with Neuroticism, in particular, associated with lower well‐being. Method In the current study we aimed to replicate these results for adjustment outcomes measured 6 years later. Sixty‐eight married couples parenting at least one child with developmental disabilities completed measures of depression and subjective well‐being, and the Transition Daily Rewards and Worries Questionnaire, an inventory that assesses parental reaction to children transitioning into adulthood. Results For both mothers and fathers, combinations of personality factors and coping strategies were able to significantly predict outcome variables measured 6 years later. Personality, however, was a better predictor for mothers, whereas coping strategies predicted more variance for fathers. Distancing, especially, demonstrated mother–father differences. Conclusions For the most part, the current results demonstrated that the relations among personality, coping and parental outcomes were consistent and stable over the 6‐year interval. In addition, although we found some differences between mothers and fathers, there were also many similarities in the frequency of use of different coping strategies, and in the direction of influence of personality and coping strategy on outcome variables.     

Parents of children with and without intellectual disability: couple relationship and individual well‐being

Background Research on parents of children with intellectual disability (ID) has identified a range of risk and protective factors for parental well‐being. In family research, the association between marital quality and depression is a vital field of investigation. Still little research has addressed how aspects of the couple relationship affect the adaptation of parents of children with ID. The present study examined predictive links between couple relationship factors (marital quality and coparenting quality) and individual well‐being. Methods Data were obtained through self‐report questionnaires completed by parents of children with ID (mothers, n = 58; and fathers, n = 46) and control children (mothers, n = 178; and fathers, n = 141). To test the hypothesis that couple relationship factors predicted individual well‐being, multiple regression analyses were performed controlling for the following risk factors identified by previous research: child self‐injury/stereotypic behaviour, parenting stress, and economic risk. Results Marital quality predicted concurrent well‐being, and coparenting quality predicted prospective well‐being. Mothers of children with ID reported lower well‐being than other parents. Conclusions There is a continued need for investigation of the details of the links between couple relationship and individual well‐being in parents of children with ID. Couple relationship factors should be given consideration in clinical interventions.     

Early childhood predictors of mothers' and fathers' relationships with adolescents with developmental disabilities

Background The importance of positive parent–adolescent relationships is stressed in research on adolescents, although very little is known about this relationship when a teen has developmental disabilities (DD). We investigated the relationships of adolescents with disabilities with their mothers and their fathers in order to answer a number of questions regarding these relationships. In particular, we asked: are there differences in the relationships of mothers and fathers with their adolescent with DD? Are there early childhood predictors of the parent–teen relationship and are those based on variables that are amenable to intervention? Finally, do these predictors differ for mothers and fathers? Methods This study focused on the relationships of 72 mothers and 53 fathers with their 15‐year‐old teens with DD and their predictors from the early childhood years. Data were collected from parents through interviews and self‐administered questionnaires, and from their children with disabilities through structured assessment when children were age 3 years and again at age 15 years. Results Analyses indicated that both mother–teen and father–teen relationships were predicted by earlier parenting stress. The father–teen relationship was also predicted by early behaviour problems, but this relation was mediated by parenting stress. Socio‐economic status, type of disability and the child's level of functioning were not predictive of later relationships between parents and teens. Mothers and fathers did not differ significantly in their reports of perceived positive relationships with their teens. Conclusions The findings from this study suggest two important points of potential intervention during the early intervention years. First, parenting assistance and support to reduce stress during the early childhood years can benefit both mothers and fathers. Second, helping families and children cope with and diminish problem behaviours is likely to yield multiple advantages for parents and children and deserves emphasis in early intervention and pre‐school programmes.     

Marital intimacy in parents of exceptional children

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of perceived parenting stress and parental depression on marital intimacy between parents of handicapped children versus developmentally normal children, and to investigate discrepancies between husbands' and wives' reports of marital intimacy. The parents of 31 autistic children, 31 Down Syndrome children and 62 developmentally normal children, matched for both mental and chronological age were studied. Results indicated significantly greater stress and depression, as well as lower marital intimacy for mothers of autistic children than mothers of normal children, and significantly greater stress than mothers of Down Syndrome children who fell somewhere between other groups of parents in all three measures. Fathers of autistic children experienced significantly higher parenting stress than the other groups, as well as lower marital intimacy but there were no differences amongst fathers on measures of depression. Low scores on subscales of identity and compatibility for mothers implying low self esteem contributed significantly to the lowered perception of marital intimacy. Implications for intervention, based on these findings, are discussed.     

The relationship between sources and functions of social support and dimensions of child- and parent-related stress

Background In this longitudinal study, we examined the relationship between the sources and functions of social support and dimensions of child‐ and parent‐related stress for mothers of young children with mild developmental delays. Methods Sixty‐three mothers completed assessments of stress and support at two time points. Results Multiple regression analyses revealed that parenting support during the early childhood period (i.e. advice on problems specific to their child and assistance with child care responsibilities), irrespective of source, consistently predicted most dimensions of parent stress assessed during the early elementary years and contributed unique variance. General support (i.e. primarily emotional support and validation) from various sources had other, less widespread effects on parental stress. Conclusions The multidimensional perspective of the construct of social support that emerged suggested mechanisms mediating the relationship between support and stress and provided a framework for intervention.     

Spilling over: Partner parenting stress as a predictor of family cohesion in parents of adolescents with developmental disabilities

Family cohesion relates to positive outcomes for both parents and children. Maintaining cohesion may be especially challenging for families of adolescents with developmental disabilities, yet this has been studied infrequently in this group. We investigated cohesion in these families, particularly with respect to partner stress, using the notion of the ‘spillover effect’ as a model.Adolescents with disabilities and their parents participated. Parents reported on teen adaptive and problem behaviours and on marital satisfaction, parenting stress, and family cohesion. The stress of one partner was tested as a predictor of the quality of family cohesion reported by the other.Adolescent behaviour problems were negative predictors of family cohesion in mothers, and marital satisfaction positively predicted cohesion for both parents. Above other factors, greater partner stress predicted poorer family cohesion for both fathers and mothers. Marital satisfaction acted as a suppressor of this relation. To improve the overall climate of families, care providers should take into consideration individual relationships, including the marital relationship. In addition, the possibility of spillover from one individual to another should be recognized as a factor in family functioning. Family-centred practices are likely to lead to greater feelings of cohesion and overall better individual and family well-being.     

Parenting stress in mothers of adults with an intellectual disability: parental cognitions in relation to child characteristics and family support

Background There is a body of evidence that indicates that the cognitions of parents of children with intellectual disabilities (ID) play an important role in influencing parental stress. However, there is a paucity of evidence about the experience of parents of adult children with ID. This study sought to apply a model of parenting stress to mothers of adults with ID. Of particular interest were the parental cognitions of parenting self‐esteem and parental locus of control. Method Face‐to face interviews were administered with 44 mothers of adults with ID. They completed the Vineland Adaptive and Maladaptive Behaviour Scale, the Family Support Scale, the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, a shortened version of the Parental Locus of Control Scale and the Parenting Stress Index. Results Correlations were observed between parenting stress and the other study variables. Regression analysis revealed that parental cognitive variables predicted 61% of the variance in parenting stress. Parenting satisfaction, a subscale of the measure of parenting sense of competence, mediated the relationships between adaptive behaviour and parenting stress and between family support and parenting stress. Conclusions These results indicate the importance of cognitive variables in the stress of mothers of adults with ID. Potential avenues of future research might focus on the experience of fathers and the impact of positive perceptions as a cognitive factor.     

Parenting Stress in Mothers and Fathers of Toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Associations with Child Characteristics

Elevated parenting stress is observed among mothers of older children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but little is known about parents of young newly-diagnosed children. Associations between child behavior and parenting stress were examined in mothers and fathers of 54 toddlers with ASD (mean age = 26.9 months). Parents reported elevated parenting stress. Deficits/delays in children's social relatedness were associated with overall parenting stress, parent-child relationship problems, and distress for mothers and fathers. Regulatory problems were associated with maternal stress, whereas externalizing behaviors were associated with paternal stress. Cognitive functioning, communication deficits, and atypical behaviors were not uniquely associated with parenting stress. Clinical assessment of parental stress, acknowledging differences in parenting experiences for mothers and fathers of young children with ASD, is needed.     

Parenting dimensions in mothers and fathers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Rearing a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a unique challenge for both parents. Previous studies addressed how mothers are affected by the challenges of raising a child with ASD, mostly in terms of stress pattern. In this study, we focused on comparisons between mothers and fathers of children with ASD in parental stress, attitude and mental health. We examined 99 parents of children with ASD using the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, the Parental Style Questionnaire, the Self-Perceptions of the Parental Role and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised. The results revealed the gender differences in the parental attitude and mental health. Mothers reported that they engaged in more social behaviors with their children than fathers. In addition mothers reported higher level of depression than fathers. No difference among parents emerged in the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form. The results of a multiple regression analysis revealed that parenting distress is associated with depression, balance of parents’ diverse roles in their life and dysfunctional interaction between parents and children. These findings highlight both similarities and differences between mothers and fathers of children with ASD and the existence of a relationship between parental stress, mental health and attitude. Results suggest the importance of developing specific intervention programs which incorporate these fundamental parenting domains.     

The Factors Predicting Stress,Anxiety and Depression in the Parents of Children with Autism

The factors predicting stress, anxiety and depression in the parents of children with autism remain poorly understood. In this study, a cohort of 250 mothers and 229 fathers of one or more children with autism completed a questionnaire assessing reported parental mental health problems, locus of control, social support, perceived parent–child attachment, as well as autism symptom severity and perceived externalizing behaviours in the child with autism. Variables assessing parental cognitions and socioeconomic support were found to be more significant predictors of parental mental health problems than child-centric variables. A path model, describing the relationship between the dependent and independent variables, was found to be a good fit with the observed data for both mothers and fathers.     

Behaviour and emotional problems in toddlers with pervasive developmental disorders and developmental delay: associations with parental mental health and family functioning

Background Behavioural and emotional problems occur at a high rate in children and adolescents with intellectual disability, often from a young age. Some studies have indicated that children and adolescents with autism present with even higher rates. Less is known about the presentation, development and family impact of these difficulties in young children with autism. This study aimed to explore these issues in toddlers with pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs), those with delay without a PDD, and their families. Methods Participants were 123 children aged 20–51 months, referred to a developmental assessment clinic. Parents completed a checklist on child behavioural and emotional problems, and individual questionnaires on family functioning, their own mental health, and stress in relation to parenting their child. The child’s language and cognitive skills, adaptive functioning and behaviour were assessed by standardized measures. Measures were repeated 1 year postdiagnosis. Behavioural and emotional problems in young children with a PDD were compared with those in children with developmental delay without a PDD, and their impact on parental outcomes explored over time. Results Initial and follow‐up measures of child behaviour and emotional problems, parent mental health problems, parent stress and family functioning were significantly correlated, providing some evidence of stability over time. Child emotional and behavioural problems contributed significantly more to mother stress, parent mental health problems, and perceived family dysfunction than child diagnosis (PDD/non‐PDD), delay or gender. Compared with mothers, all fathers reported significantly less stress in relation to parenting their child. Conclusion Results highlighted the importance of addressing emotional and behavioural problems in very young children with autism and/or developmental delay. The need for early support and intervention for mothers, fathers and families in this context was also evidenced. As research has shown that behavioural and emotional problems persist into adolescence and young adulthood, understanding of these issues in very young children and their parents has important implications for intervention and long‐term outcomes.     

The role of coping strategies in predicting change in parenting efficacy and depressive symptoms among mothers of adolescents with developmental disabilities

Background Parents of children with developmental disabilities (DD) face greater caregiving demands than parents of children without DD. There is considerable variability in parents' adjustment to raising a child with DD, however. In line with a strengths‐based approach, this study explores coping strategies as potential mechanisms of resilience among mothers of adolescents with DD. This study examines the frequency with which mothers use various coping strategies and the extent to which those strategies moderate the relationship between adolescent behaviour problems and aspects of maternal well‐being. Both positive and negative dimensions of well‐being are explored, with maternal depressive symptoms and perceived parenting efficacy examined as outcomes cross‐sectionally and longitudinally. Methods The present study focuses on 92 mothers and their adolescents with DD. The adolescents had a wide range of diagnoses, all with continuing special needs. Data were collected from mothers through interviews and self‐administered questionnaires when their adolescents were aged 15 and aged 18. A structured assessment of the adolescent was completed during home visits at age 15. Results Mothers reported frequently using strategies of denial and planning but rarely using strategies of mental and behavioural disengagement to cope with recent stressful situations. Adolescent behaviour problems were found to contribute to greater symptoms of depression and lower feelings of parenting efficacy as well as increases in depressive symptoms over time. Mothers of sons, but not daughters, reported increases in parenting efficacy across their child's adolescent period. Above and beyond adolescent factors, several coping strategies emerged as significant predictors of mothers' symptoms of depression and perceived parenting efficacy. Moreover, use of Active Coping/Planning, Positive Reinterpretation/Growth, and Behavioural/Mental Disengagement as coping strategies moderated the impact of adolescent behaviour problems on maternal depressive symptoms. Conclusions This study extends previous findings by focusing on both positive and negative dimensions of parent well‐being during their child's adolescent period. Adolescence can be a stressful time for parents, with typical developmental tasks entailing additional strains for parents of adolescents with DD. The present findings point to several coping strategies that may reduce the impact of challenging behaviours during this period on mothers' symptoms of depression and feelings of parenting efficacy. Certain coping strategies were found to exert a greater impact on maternal well‐being for parents of adolescents with higher levels of behaviour problems, suggesting that interventions may benefit from an increased focus on this group of mothers with heightened caregiving demands.     

Parenting stress in mothers of children with an intellectual disability: the effects of parental cognitions in relation to child characteristics and family support

Background Recent theories of stress and coping in parents of children with intellectual disabilities (ID) emphasize the importance of cognitive appraisals in influencing parents’ levels of stress and their adaptations to difficulties presented by the children. This study investigated the relationships between parental cognitions, child characteristics, family support and parenting stress. The aspects of cognitions studied were: parenting self-esteem (including efficacy and satisfaction) and parental locus of control. Methods The group studied consisted of 46 mothers of children with ID. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales and Maladaptive Behavior Domain were administered by interview. Mothers also completed four questionnaires: the Family Support Scale, the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, a shortened form of the Parental Locus of Control Scale and the Parenting Stress Index (Short Form). Results Data were analysed using Pearson's correlation coefficients, partial correlations and a regression analysis. The results indicated that most of the variance in parenting stress was explained by parental locus of control, parenting satisfaction and child behaviour difficulties. Whilst there was also a strong correlation between family support and parenting stress, this was mediated by parental locus of control. Conclusions The results demonstrate the potential importance of parental cognitions in influencing parental stress levels. It is argued that these results have implications for clinical interventions for promoting parents’ coping strategies in managing children with ID and behavioural difficulties.     

Parenting stress and coping styles in mothers and fathers of pre‐school children with autism and Down syndrome

Background The study examined the profile of stress in mothers and fathers of preschool children with autism, Down syndrome and typically developing children. A further aim was to assess the association between parenting stress and coping style. Methods A total of 162 parents were examined using Holroyd's 66‐item short form of Questionnaire of Resources and Stress for Families with Chronically Ill or Handicapped Members and the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations by Endler and Parker. Results and Conclusions The results indicated a higher level of stress in parents of children with autism. Additionally, an interaction effect was revealed between child diagnostic group and parent's gender for two scales of parenting stress: dependency and management and limits of family opportunities. Mothers of children with autism scored higher than fathers in parental stress; no such differences were found in the group of parents of children with Down syndrome and typically developing children. It was also found that parents of children with autism differed from parents of typically developing children in social diversion coping. Emotion‐oriented coping was the predictor for parental stress in the samples of parents of children with autism and Down syndrome, and task‐oriented coping was the predictor of parental stress in the sample of parents of typically developing children. The results strongly supported earlier findings on parenting stress in parents of children with autism. They also shed interesting light on the relationship between coping styles and parental stress.     

Paid employment of mothers and fathers of an adult child with multiple disabilities

Background Paid employment is increasingly undertaken by mothers as their children age, with the majority of women being in employment by the time their offspring are adult. Opportunities to engage in employment appear to be reduced for mothers of children with disabilities; however, little is known about the employment of mothers or fathers of adults with disabilities. Method Data were collected regarding the employment decisions of parents of a young adult with multiple disabilities and contrasted with those of parents whose children were all developing normally. Twenty‐five mothers and 12 fathers of a young adult with multiple disabilities were interviewed, as were 25 comparison mothers and 19 comparison fathers. Data collected included hours of work, reasons for employment status, attitudes towards work and child care, and psychological well‐being. Results Clear differences were found between the two groups. Mothers and fathers of a child with multiple disabilities showed different engagement patterns with the paid workforce from comparison parents. Hours of work for fathers of a young adult with multiple disabilities showed a bi‐modal distribution, with some fathers working fewer hours than usual and others working very long hours. For mothers in both groups, the number of hours in paid employment was negatively associated with reports of psychological problems. Conclusions Increased attention needs to be given to the employment opportunities of parents of children with disabilities since employment appears to play a protective role for mothers, in particular. Services provided to adults with disabilities will need to change if parents are to have the same life chances as parents without adult offspring with a disability.     

Personality, coping style and well-being of parents rearing children with developmental disabilities

Background Parents with children with developmental disabilities (DD) encounter a variety of stressors associated with rearing their children and must develop effective coping mechanisms in order to adapt successfully to these challenges. Previous research has failed to establish the role of parental individual differences in the reported use of different coping strategies. The current study explores parental personality and whether children with DD were adopted or born into the families and their influence on the coping strategies used by mothers and fathers. Methods A total of 97 mother–father dyads rearing at least one child with DD were participants. They narrated stressful situations related to their child and completed the Ways of Coping Questionnaire twice. Data were also collected with regard to personality, depression and subjective well‐being (SWB). Results Both adoptive and birth mothers and fathers used more problem‐focused than emotion‐focused strategies. Personality factors, Neuroticism especially, were predictive of coping strategy use. Higher levels of Positive Reappraisal were associated with higher levels of SWB, whereas higher levels of Escape‐Avoidance were associated with lower levels of SWB, but only for mothers. Results were consistent with a dispositional model of strategy use in that frequency of use was associated with personality characteristics, was consistent over time, and for different children in the same families. Future research should focus on the persistence of the associations between strategy use and well‐being and whether they hold true at different stages of the lifespan when coping contexts may change quite dramatically.     

Socioeconomic and psychological variables as risk and protective factors for parental well-being in families of children with intellectual disabilities

Background The first aim of the present study was to estimate the extent to which differences in well‐being in parents of children with and without intellectual disability (ID) in Sweden can be accounted for by differences in the presence of the risk factors: (1) child disability; (2) socioeconomic disadvantage; (3) household composition; and (4) parental characteristics. The second aim was concerned with individual variation in well‐being within the group of parents of children with ID. The aim was to estimate if protective factors such as parental personality characteristics (sense of coherence), perceived positive impact of the child and satisfaction with participation in different arenas of life explained variation in well‐being in mothers and fathers of children with ID over and above that explained by the risk factors. Method Parents of children with ID (62 mothers and 49 fathers) and control children (183 mothers and 141 fathers) completed postal surveys on well‐being, socioeconomic situation, health, sense of coherence, satisfaction with participation in different arenas of life and the child's impact on the family. Results The results showed that mothers of children with ID had lower levels of well‐being than fathers and control parents, but the presence of a child with ID did not in itself predict poorer maternal well‐being. Rather, differences in economic hardship and self‐rated health were the strongest predictors for well‐being. It was further found that 67.7% of the mothers of children with ID scored within the high well‐being group. The predictive power of the model increased significantly for both fathers and mothers when protective factors were added to the model (42 and 78% explained variance compared with 25% with only risk factors). Conclusions Well‐being of parents with a child with ID is dependent upon the interplay of risk and protective factors and research needs to address these variables simultaneously.     

Hope as a psychological resilience factor in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities

Background Positive psychology is an area gaining credence within the field of intellectual disability (ID). Hope is one facet of positive psychology that is relatively unstudied in parents of children with ID. In the present study, we explore hope and its relationships with parental well‐being in parents of school‐aged children with ID. Method A total of 138 mothers and 58 fathers of children with ID took part in a questionnaire‐based study. Parents reported on their feelings of hope and positive affect, other dimensions of psychological well‐being (anxiety, depression and stress), and on their child's behaviour. For this study, hope was measured as a goal driven behaviour comprising two components: agency (the perception that one can reach his/her goals) and pathways (the perception that one can find alternative routes to reach these goals should the need arise). Results For mothers, regression analyses revealed that lower levels of hope (agency and pathways) and more child behaviour problems predicted maternal depression. Positive affect was predicted by less problematic child behaviour and by higher levels of hope agency. For fathers, anxiety and depression were predicted by low hope agency and positive affect was predicted by high hope agency. Hope pathways was not a significant predictor of paternal well‐being. Hope agency and pathways interacted in the prediction of maternal depression such that mothers reporting high levels of both hope dimensions reported the lowest levels of depressive symptoms. Conclusions Hope is a construct that merits further investigation within families research, and is potentially a factor that could be utilised in intervention to help increase familial well‐being.