Antinociceptive activity of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum: attenuation of both peripheral and central pain mediators

Polygonatum verticillatum All. is used traditionally as an analgesic and plant diuretic. The methanol extract of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum (PA) was assessed in various experimental paradigms. The pain threshold in the form of abdominal constriction induced by acetic acid was significantly (p < 0.01) inhibited by PA at test doses (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg). In the formalin test, PA elicited a significant (p < 0.01) analgesic activity in both phases and strongly attenuated the formalin‐induced flinching behaviour. The hot plate test was used to evaluate central involvement in the analgesic profile of PA. The PA significantly relieved thermal‐induced pain. From a mechanistic point of view, the central antihyperalgesic activity was tested for antagonism with naloxone, but no antagonism was observed. The current investigations suggest that the active constituent(s) in PA has an analgesic profile with predominant peripheral activity which is augmented by an opioid independent central effect. In the diuretic assay, PA (300 and 600 mg/kg) showed mild insignificant diuretic activity. Our study rationalized the traditional use of Polygonatum verticillatum in the treatment of painful conditions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bronchodilator Activity of Aerial Parts of Polygonatum verticillatum Augmented by Anti‐inflammatory Activity: Attenuation of Ca2+ Channels and Lipoxygenase

Polygonatum verticillatum is commonly used for the treatment of asthma and inflammation. The current study was aimed to scrutinize the pharmacological profile of methanolic extract of the aerial parts (PA). Isolated tracheal preparations were used for the evaluation of bronchodilatory activity, whilst the in vivo carrageenan‐induced paw oedema test and an in vitro lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitory assay were used for the assessment of the anti‐inflammatory profile of PA. When tested against carbachol and K⁺ (80 mM)‐induced contractions, PA caused complete inhibition of isolated rabbit tracheal preparations in a dose‐dependent mode, similar to verapamil. While elucidating possible mechanism, PA shifted the Ca²⁺ concentration–response curves to the right, analogous to that produced by verapamil, confirming a Ca²⁺ channel blocker‐like activity. PA provoked profound reduction in paw oedema with a maximum protection of 60.87% at 200 mg/kg i.p. in a dose‐dependent manner which was augmented by its prominent LOX inhibitory activity (IC₅₀: 125 µg/mL). These findings authenticated its therapeutic potential in the treatment of asthmatic and inflammatory conditions. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The antinociceptive activity of Polygonatumverticillatum rhizomes in pain models

Aim of the study

The current study was designed to establish the pharmacological rationale for the traditional use of the rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum in the treatment of painful conditions and as a plant diuretic.

Materials and methods

The crude methanolic extract of the rhizomes of Polygonatumverticillatum (PR) was tested in various established pain models in rodents at 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg i.p. while the diuretic activity was assessed at 300 and 600 mg/kg p.o. in rats.

Results

PR demonstrated significant reduction (14–72%) in the number of writhes induced by acetic acid in a dose-dependent manner. When nociceptive threshold was measured in the formalin test, PR strongly attenuated the formalin-induced flinching behaviour in both phases (6–30% in first phase while 12–72% in second phase). Central involvement in the analgesic profile of PR was confirmed by the hot plate test, in which PR elicited a significant (P < 0.01) analgesic activity by increasing latency time. However, an opioid receptor antagonist, naloxone (2 mg/kg s.c.) strongly antagonized the antinociceptive activity of PR. As a plant diuretic, PR showed mild but statistically insignificant diuretic activity at 300 mg/kg. The crude extract and solvent fractions of the plant contained reasonable quantity of total saponin and alkaloid contents.

Conclusions

The mechanisms underlying the analgesic action of PR shows that the opioid dependant central mediation has synergistic effect by enforcing the peripheral analgesic effects. Interestingly, our findings not only substantiated the folk use of the plant as an analgesic but also reported for the first time in the whole genus.     

Effects of Hypericum montbretti Extract on the Central Nervous System and Involvement of GABA (A)/Benzodiazepine Receptors in its Pharmacological Activity

The present study was undertaken to investigate the putative activity of a methanol extract of Hypericum montbretti (Guttiferae) on the central nervous system. Rutin (1519 ppm) and quercitrin (784 ppm) were identified as the major phenolic compounds in the extract. When administered at 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg doses, the extract decreased the total number of head‐dipping behaviours performed by mice during a hole‐board test. Administration of both the extract and diazepam (2 mg/kg) reduced spontaneous locomotory activity, potentiated hexobarbital (60 mg/kg)‐induced sleeping parameters and prevented pentylenetetrazole (80 mg/kg)‐induced seizures relative to the controls. These findings are the first to indicate the sedative and anticonvulsant activities of H. montbretti extract. Atropine (2 mg/kg) and naloxone (5 mg/kg) pre‐treatment did not reverse the sedative effect, indicating that muscarinic and opioidergic mechanisms did not contribute to the pharmacological action. However, pre‐treatment with flumazenil (a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist) reversed both the sedative and anticonvulsant effects induced by a 100 mg/kg dose of the extract, indicating the involvement of the GABA(A)‐benzodiazepine receptor complex. In conclusion, H. montbretti extract is a novel candidate as a sedative and anticonvulsant drug for the treatment of sleep disorders and for the prevention of epileptic seizures. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anticonvulsant activity of Carissa edulis (Vahl) (Apocynaceae) root bark extract

AIM OF THE STUDY: To investigate the anticonvulsant activity of root bark extract of Carissa edulis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The median lethal dose (LD(50)) of Carissa edulis extract was determined using Lork's method (1983). The anticonvulsant activity of the extract was assessed in pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced convulsion in mice and maximal electroshock test (MEST) in chicks, with benzodiazepine and phenytoin as standard drugs, respectively. While mechanistic studies were conducted using both flumazenil, a GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor complex site antagonist and naloxone a non-specific opioid receptor antagonist. RESULTS: The median lethal dose (LD(50)) of Carissa edulis was 282.8mg/kg and over 5000mg/kg following intraperitoneal and oral administration, respectively. Carissa edulis produced 40% and 20% protection against convulsion at 5 and 20mg/kg, respectively, compared with 100% protection with benzodiazepine. The mean onset and percentage protection against convulsion in Carissa edulis extract-treated mice were reduced by flumazenil and naloxone. Carissa edulis exhibited dose-dependent inhibition of the convulsion induced by MEST with 20mg/kg providing 90% protection while phenytoin (20mg/kg) produced 100% protection. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that Carissa edulis possesses biologically active constituent(s) that have anticonvulsant activity which supports the ethnomedicinal claims of the use of the plant in the management of epilepsy.     

Terpenoid content of Valeriana wallichii extracts and antidepressant‐like response profiles

Three extracts of Valeriana wallichii DC (Valerianaceae) rhizome and fluoxetine were studied for antidepressant‐like activity in two behavioral models, namely the forced swim test (FST) and the tail suspension test (TST). Fluoxetine as well as methanolic and aqueous extracts of V. wallichii induced monophasic dose‐related decrements in immobility times in both tests. However, the aqueous‐ethanolic fraction induced a biphasic dose‐response profile since it produced a graded effect up to 200 mg/kg but the highest dose (250 mg/kg) was inactive in the FST. This extract also exhibited significantly reduced activity at 200 mg/kg compared to lower doses in the TST. The highest doses of aqueous‐ethanolic extract also reduced locomotor activity which will have led to a negative functional interaction with antidepressant‐like effects. Qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed that the aqueous‐ethanolic extract of V. wallichii was the only separated rhizome fraction containing terpenoids. Furthermore, since the methanolic and aqueous extracts were active in the tests, it is suggested that the antidepressant‐like action of this herbal plant is not contingent upon its terpenoid constituents. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anticonvulsant activity of the methanolic extract of Justicia extensa T. Anders

Ethnopharmacological relevance

To investigate the anticonvulsant activity of the leaf extract of Justicia extensa T. Anders used traditionally in the treatment of convulsion.

Materials and methods

The anticonvulsant activity of the methanolic extract of Justicia extensa (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) was assessed in strychnine-induced (STR) and picrotoxin-induced (PCT) convulsion models in mice. Diazepam (1 mg/kg) and phenobarbitone (2 mg/kg) were used as reference drugs respectively.

Results

The extract showed no toxicity and significantly prolonged (p < 0.01-0.05) the onset and reduced the duration of the seizures induced by picrotoxin (5 mg/kg, i.p.) in a dose dependent manner. Phenobarbitone completely inhibited the seizures in this model. Similarly, in the seizures induced by strychnine (1 mg/kg, i.p.), the extract also prolonged the onset and reduced the duration of the seizures though not in a dose dependent manner. Diazepam failed to inhibit the strychnine-induced seizures. The plant extract however showed a significantly higher anticonvulsant activity at 100 and 200 mg/kg in comparison with diazepam.

Conclusions

The results obtained from this work suggest that Justicia extensa has anticonvulsant activity and this supports the use of the plant traditionally in the treatment of convulsion.     

Anticonvulsant effects of Searsia dentata (Anacardiaceae) leaf extract in rats

Searsia species are used in South Africa to treat epilepsy. Previous studies have demonstrated an in vitro N‐methyl‐D‐aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonistic effect of the ethanolic leaf extract. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential anticonvulsant properties of the ethanolic extract of S. dentata in various animal models of epilepsy. The extract was submitted to a screening in anticonvulsant assays including NMDA‐, kainic acid (KA)‐, pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)‐ and bicuculline (BIC)‐induced seizures in rats. The extract protected 47% of the PN 18 Wistar pups (postnatal day 18, date of birth PN 0) (p < 0.05, n > 10) against NMDA‐induced seizures and significantly delayed the onset of PTZ‐induced seizures (p < 0.05, n > 8) at a dose of 250 mg/kg. A dose optimum was detected at 500 mg/kg for protection against KA‐(63% protection, p < 0.05, n > 8) and BIC‐induced seizures (50% protection, p < 0.05, n > 8) in young adult and PN 18 rats, respectively. The ethanolic extract of S. dentata showed anticonvulsive properties in several models of epilepsy. These results are compatible with previous findings of NMDA receptor antagonism. Due to the complex composition of the extract, the effect might be caused by more than one compound. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anticonvulsant activity of Benkara malabarica (Linn.) root extract: In vitro and in vivo investigation

Aim of the study

To systematically investigate the anticonvulsant activity of methanol extract of Benkara malabarica roots and to provide a biochemical basis elucidating its mode of action.

Methods

The median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of Benkara malabarica extract was determined. The anticonvulsant activity of the extract was assessed in strychnine-induced and isoniazide-induced convulsion models; phenytoin (20 mg/kg) and diazepam (1 mg/kg) were used as standards, respectively. Percentage protection provided by the drug was accounted as decrease in the number of convulsions within 8 h of observation. Mechanism of action was studied by performing GABA transaminase (GABA-T) assay, isolated from rat brain. Active constituent was isolated and characterized from the plant extract.

Results

The median lethal dose (LD50) of Benkara malabarica was found to be more than 500 mg/kg. It demonstrated 30% and 35% protection against strychnine-induced convulsions and 60% and 80% protection against isoniazide-induced convulsions, at doses of 25 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg, respectively. Enzyme assay results revealed that Benkara malabarica extract possesses GABA-T inhibitory activity (IC50 = 0.721 mg/ml). Scopoletin which was identified as the major constituent of the extract was found to be an inhibitor of GABA-T (IC50 = 10.57 μM).

Conclusions

The anticonvulsant activity of the plant extract is predominantly GABA mediated and may be due to the action of scopoletin alone or is a result of synergy of different compounds in the extract in which scopoletin is the major constituent.     

Evaluation of antipyretic potential of Nelumbo nucifera stalk extract

The ethanol extract of stalks of Nelumbo nucifera (NNSE) was evaluated for its antipyretic potential on normal body temperature and yeast induced pyrexia in rats. NNSE showed significant activity in both the models at oral doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg. NNSE at a dose of 200 mg/kg was found to produce significant lowering of normal body temperature up to 3 h and at 400 mg/kg it caused significant lowering of body temperature up to 6 h after its administration. In the model of yeast provoked elevation of body temperature NNSE showed dose-dependent lowering of body temperature up to 4 h at both the doses and the results were comparable to that of paracetamol, a standard antipyretic agent.     

Assessment of Sedative Effects of Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa and Passiflora alata Extracts in Mice,Measured by Telemetry

Several Passiflora species have been used widely as a folk medicine due to their sedative and anxiolytic activities. In Brazil, a number of native plants of the genus Passiflora exist, but only Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa (PE) and Passiflora alata (PA) are of commercial value. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the sedative effects of aqueous extracts obtained from the pericarp as well as from the leaves of PE and PA in mice using radiotelemetry. Aqueous extracts from PE and PA were tested for effects on locomotion over 180 min in 300 mg/kg, 600 mg/kg and 1200 mg/kg, in male C57BL/6J mice after oral administration. For validation of the telemetry system, caffeine (negative control) and midazolam (positive control) were used. All tested extracts decreased locomotor activity in a dose‐dependent manner in comparison to the control group. The two lower concentrations of each extract showed the highest decrease in locomotion after 24 min, while 1200 mg/kg had a significant sedative effect already after 18 min. Interestingly, aqueous extracts of PA were more active in comparison to aqueous extracts of PE and the pericarp extracts of both plants showed more pronounced effects on locomotor activity if compared to leaf extracts. In conclusion, the present study represents an innovative, objective approach to measure sedative effects of plant extracts with minimized handling‐related stress and remote data collection. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anticonvulsant, analgesic and antipyretic activities of Taxus wallichiana Zucc

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Himalayan Yew) is often used in northern areas of Pakistan for the treatment of pyrexia, acute pains and epilepsy. We have investigated certain pharmacological activities of the methanol leaf extract against convulsion, nociception and pyrexia induced in rodents. The aim was to justify and explore its folk uses in these pathological conditions, on scientific basis. The studies were carried out using acetic acid-induced nociception and pentylenetetrazole-induced convulsions in mice, while formalin test and yeast-induced pyrexia in rats. Significant analgesic (67.77 and 74.29%) effect was found in acetic acid-induced model at doses of 100 and 200mg/kg, i.p. respectively. Crude extract exhibited significant (P<0.05) inhibition of the formalin noxious stimulation on both early and late phases of pain by the extracts (100 and 200mg/kg doses). In case of yeast-induced pyrexia model, 200mg/kg dose showed very significant (P<0.01) inhibition while 50 and 100mg/kg dose caused a significant (P<0.05) inhibition. Plant extract has controlled the pentylenetetrazole-induced convulsions in mice. 100 and 200mg/kg i.p doses of the extract significantly (P<0.05) inhibited the mioclonus and clonus while inhibition of tonus and hind limb tonic extension (HLTE) was highly significant (P<0.01). The anticonvulsant activity of this plant has been reported for the first time throughout the whole genus. The observed pharmacological activities provide the scientific basis for the folkloric use of the plant in treating epilepsy, pyrexia and acute pain.     

A pharmacological evaluation of Baphia nitida Lodd (Leguminosae) ethanolic extract on rats and mice

Fresh leaves of Baphia nitida supplied by a herbalist were extracted, screened phytochemically and then subjected to various pharmacological tests. The phytochemical tests showed the presence of saponin, flavonoid glycosides and true tannins. In the dose range used, no acute toxicity was observed for the ethanolic extract. The extract showed a dose dependent antinociceptive (analgesic) activity in mice with the analgesic activity of 500 mg/kg extract being comparable to that of 300 mg/kg of acetylsalicylic acid. The extract demonstrated an antidiarrhoeal effect by protecting rats against castor oil induced diarrhoea. This was also dose related but less than the protection afforded by sodium salicylate. The extract did not demonstrate any appreciable anticonvulsant effect against strychnine-induced convulsion in rats.     

Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects of methanol extract from Bauhinia racemosa stem bark in animal models

In this study, the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight of methanol extract obtained from Bauhinia racemosa stem bark, the so-called MEBR, were investigated. The effects of MEBR on the acute and chronic phases of inflammation were studied in carrageenan, dextran and mediators (histamine and serotonin)-induced paw oedema and cotton pellet-induced granuloma, respectively. Analgesic effect of MEBR was evaluated in acetic acid-induced writhing and hotplate tests. Antipyretic activity of MEBR was evaluated by yeast-induced hyperpyrexia in rats. The anti-oedema effect of MEBR was compared with 10 mg/kg of indomethacin orally. In acute phase of inflammation, a maximum inhibition of 44.9, 43.2, 44.8 and 45.9% (P<0.001) was noted at the dose of 200 mg/kg b.w. after 3h of treatment with MEBR in carrageenan, dextran, histamine and serotonin-induced paw oedema, respectively. Administration of MEBR (200 mg/kg b.w.) and indomethacin (10 mg/kg b.w.) significantly (P<0.05) decreased the formation of granuloma tissue induced by cotton pellet method at a rate of 50.4 and 56.2%, respectively. The extract also inhibited peritoneal leukocyte migration in mice. The MEBR also produced significant (P<0.01) analgesic activity in both models. Further, the MEBR potentiated the morphine- and aspirin-induced analgesic in mice. Treatment with MEBR showed a significant (P<0.01) dose-dependent reduction in pyrexia in rats. The results suggest that MEBR possess potent anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity.     

Anticonvulsant Effect of Berberis integerrima L. Root Extracts in Mice

Berberis integerrima is a member of Berberidaceae family. Berberine is one of the main constituents of this plant, having neuroprotective effect on central nervous system diseases. In this study, the anticonvulsant activity of methanolic extract, and hydromethanolic fraction, and chloroform fraction of B integerrima was assessed. The anticonvulsant effect of B integerrima was investigated using both pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and maximal electroshock (MES)-induced seizure models. The LD50 value of the methanolic extract was 302.676 mg/kg. In the PTZ test, methanolic extract (140 and 200 mg/kg, i.p., p < 0.01), hydromethanolic fraction (200 mg/kg, p < 0.01), and chloroform fraction (200 mg/kg, p < 0.01) increased the onset time of hind limb tonic extensions (HLTEs). The protective effect against mortality (convulsion survivors/animals tested) was 2/8 in methanolic extract, and 3/8 in hydromethanolic fraction at a dose of 200 mg/kg and in chloroform fraction at a dose of 140 mg/kg. In the MES test, this plant did not display any significant effect in reducing HLTE duration. According to phytochemical screening, methanolic extract contained alkaloids and tannins. The present study, conducted in mice, indicated that B integerrima has anticonvulsant activity in PTZ-induced seizures. It is concluded that B integerrima may be useful in petit mal epilepsy.     

Evaluation of antipyretic potential of Vernonia cinerea extract in rats

The methanol extract of the whole plant of Vernonia cinerea (MEVC) was evaluated for its antipyretic potential on normal body temperature and yeast-induced pyrexia in rats. MEVC significantly reduced the normal body temperature at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight p.o. MEVC also lowered the elevated body temperature in the case of yeast-induced pyrexia in a dose dependent manner. The antipyretic effect of the extract at a dose of 500 mg/kg was identical to that of the standard drug paracetamol.     

Protective effect of Morinda citrifolia fruits on β‐amyloid (25–35) induced cognitive dysfunction in mice: An experimental and biochemical study

The neuroprotective effect of an ethyl acetate extract of Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae) Linn. fruits (EMC, ethyl acetate extract of Morinda citrifolia) at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o. was studied on β‐amyloid (25–35) peptide induced cognitive dysfunction in mice. In the step‐down inhibitory avoidance, EMC exhibited a significant increase in short‐term memory and long‐term memory (p < 0.05). A significant decrease (p < 0.01) in escape latency was noticed in the animals in the water maze. A significant increase (p < 0.01) in alteration of behavior was exhibited upon administration of EMC 200 and 400 mg/kg on the Y maze. Exploratory parameters such as line crossings, head dipping and rearing were increased significantly in EMC treated groups in a dose‐dependent manner (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01). A significant reduction (p < 0.05) in acetyl cholinesterase activity was noticed in the EMC 200 and 400 mg/kg treated groups. The level of monoamine oxidase‐A was decreased by the administration of EMC 200 and 400 mg/kg (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively). EMC at a dose of 400 mg/kg exhibited a significant increase (p < 0.01) in the levels of serotonin and dopamine. Antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase and ascorbic acid were decreased significantly in the b‐amyloid peptide injected group, whose levels were restored significantly (p < 0.01) by the administration of EMC (400 mg/kg). Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of antipyretic potential of Leucas lavandulaefolia (Labiatae) aerial part extract

Methanol extract of Leucas lavandulaefolia (LLFE) was subjected to antipyretic evaluation with yeast-induced pyrexia in rats. A yeast suspension (10 mL/kg, s.c.) increased the rectal temperature 19 h after administration. The extract at doses of 100, 200, 400 mg/kg (i.p.) produced significant dose dependent lowering of body temperature in yeast-provoked elevation of body temperature in rats. The antipyretic effect produced was comparable to that of a standard antipyretic drug, paracetamol.     

Modulation of Radiation‐Induced Alterations in Oxidative Stress and Cytokine Expression in Lung Tissue by Panax Ginseng Extract

We investigated the modulating effect of Panax ginseng extract (PGE) on radiation‐induced lung injury (RILI) by measuring early changes in oxidative stress levels, cytokine expression, and the histopathology of mouse lung tissue treated with high dose of X‐ray radiation. The mice were pretreated with 25, 50, and 100‐mg/kg doses of PGE orally for four consecutive days, and their thoraces were then exposed to 15‐Gy X‐ray radiation 1 h after the last administration of PGE on day 4. The pretreatments with 50 and 100 mg/kg PGE led to significant reductions in the elevation of lipid peroxidation levels at 2 and 10 days, respectively, after irradiation. The mice pretreated with PGE exhibited dose‐dependent reductions in the irradiation‐induced production of tumor necrosis factor α and transforming growth factor β1 cytokines 10 days after irradiation, with these reductions nearly reaching the control levels after the 100‐mg/kg dose. Furthermore, together with providing significant protection against reductions in catalase activity and glutathione content, pretreatment with 100 mg/kg PGE resulted in a marked attenuation of the severity of inflammatory changes in lung tissue 10 days after irradiation. A high pretreatment dose of PGE may be a useful pharmacological approach for protection against RILI. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anticonvulsant properties of the methanolic extract of Cyperus articulatus (Cyperaceae)

The methanolic extract of rhizomes of Cyperus articulatus, a plant used in traditional medicine in Africa and Latin America for many diseases, possesses anticonvulsant activity in mice. This extract protected mice against maximal electroshock (MES)- and pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizures. It also delayed the onset of seizures induced by isonicotinic acid hydrazide and strongly antagonized N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced turning behavior. The ED(50) for protection against seizures was 306 (154-541) mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.) for the PTZ test and 1005 (797-1200) mg/kg i.p. for the MES test. The ED(50) of methanolic extract against N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced turning behavior was 875 (623-1123) mg/kg i.p. C. articulatus L. methanolic extract protected 54% of mice from seizures induced by strychnine at the dose of 1000 mg/kg i.p. but had no or a moderate effect only against picrotoxin- or bicuculline-induced seizures. With these effects, the rhizome of C. articulatus L. possesses anticonvulsant properties in animals that might explain its use as a traditional medicine for epilepsy in Africa.