Regulation of cellular proliferation and intimal formation following balloon injury in atherosclerotic rabbit arteries.

Injury to atherosclerotic arteries induces the expression of growth regulatory genes that stimulate cellular proliferation and intimal formation. Intimal expansion has been reduced in vivo in nonatherosclerotic balloon-injured arteries by transfer of genes that inhibit cell proliferation. It is not known, however, whether vascular cell proliferation can be inhibited after injury in more extensively diseased atherosclerotic arteries. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether expression of recombinant genes in atherosclerotic arteries after balloon injury could inhibit intimal cell proliferation. To test this hypothesis, we examined the response to balloon injury in atherosclerotic rabbit arteries after gene transfer of herpesvirus thymidine kinase gene (tk) and administration of ganciclovir. Smooth muscle cells from hyperlipidemic rabbit arteries infected with adenoviral vectors encoding tk were sensitive to ganciclovir, and bystander killing was observed in vitro. In atherosclerotic arteries, a human placental alkaline phosphatase reporter gene was expressed in intimal and medial smooth muscle cells and macrophages, identifying these cells as targets for gene transfer. Expression of tk in balloon-injured hyperlipidemic rabbit arteries followed by ganciclovir treatment resulted in a 64% reduction in intimal cell proliferation 7 d after gene transfer (P = 0.004), and a 35-49% reduction in internal area 21 d after gene transfer, compared with five different control groups (P < 0.05). Replication of smooth muscle cells and macrophages was inhibited by tk expression and ganciclovir treatment. These findings indicate that transfer of a gene that inhibits cellular proliferation limits the intimal area in balloon-injured atherosclerotic arteries. Molecular approaches to the inhibition of cell proliferation in atherosclerotic arteries constitute a possible treatment for vascular proliferative diseases.     

核因子κB对血管成形术后平滑肌细胞增殖和新生内膜形成的影响(英文)

背景:血管壁机械性损伤后的炎症和增殖效应是血管再狭窄的主要原因。核因子κB/Rel家族中的核因子κB在多种细胞类型中表达,激活一系列与血管壁病理生理相关的靶基因。目的:探讨核因子κB的反义和诱骗性寡核苷酸对血管平滑肌细胞增殖以及大鼠颈动脉球囊损伤后血管新生内膜和单核细胞化学趋化因子的作用。设计:随机对照动物实验。单位:上海交通大学医学院附属瑞金医院心内科。材料:3个月龄雄性SD大鼠126只,350～380g。引物合成和寡核苷酸合成:根据文献及国际互联网cDNA文库检索、设计,由上海生物工程公司合成;寡核苷酸合成:全硫代修饰,由上海生物工程有限公司合成。方法:实验于2001-05/2003-03在上海交通大学医学院细胞生物学实验室和瑞金医院心血管实验室完成。采用贴块法原代培养大鼠胸主动脉血管平滑肌细胞,实验选用3～5代血管平滑肌细胞。检测增殖的平滑肌细胞内增殖细胞核抗原和核因子κB蛋白水平。制作大鼠血管球囊损伤模型。SD大鼠随机分为7组,正常组:除球囊损伤外,其余手术操作同其他组相同;反义组;正义组;诱骗组;Scramble组;反义 诱骗组;模型组。每组分为6个时相点(6h,1,3,5,7,14d),每个时相点3只大鼠。检测血管球囊损伤后新生内膜形成以及单核细胞化学趋化因子1、核因子κB p65和ERK2的表达水平。主要观察指标:①核因子κB p65寡核苷酸对血管平滑肌细胞增殖的效应。②核因子κB p65基因表达定位和蛋白合成。③大鼠颈动脉球囊损伤后病理形态学改变。④单核细胞化学趋化因子1 mRNA表达。⑤免疫组织化学检测球囊损伤后血管壁单核细胞化学趋化因子1的蛋白质表达。⑥Western blot检测球囊损伤后血管壁核因子κB p65,ERK2的蛋白合成。结果:①增殖的平滑肌细胞内增殖标记物增殖细胞核抗原表达增加。②增殖的平滑肌细胞浆、细胞核内均有核因子κB p65的基因表达;核因子κB p65蛋白水平增加。观察核因子κB p65基因表达水平,反义核酸组较对照正义组降低53.66%,诱骗性寡核苷酸组较诱骗对照组降低57.35%,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。③核因子κB反义和诱骗寡核苷酸抑制增殖细胞核抗原表达,较阳性对照组分别降低45.12%,45.05%。④大鼠血管球囊损伤后第5天,正义组、诱骗对照组、模型组内膜面积、中膜面积、内膜/中膜比值显著升高(P<0.05),7d后达到高峰。反义组、诱骗组显著降低内膜与中膜比值,反义 诱骗组较单独应用无统计学意义的降低效应。⑤反转录-聚合酶链反应显示球囊损伤后6h,单核细胞化学趋化因子1 mRNA表达明显增加,1d后表达减少,3,5,7d单核细胞化学趋化因子1 mRNA持续而明显的表达增强,14d后略为降低。反义组、诱骗组、反义 诱骗组在各时间点均能减少单核细胞化学趋化因子1 mRNA表达。⑥Western Blot检测显示血管球囊损伤后6h,核因子κB p65、ERK2蛋白表达微弱,1d后ERK2蛋白表达略增强,核因子κB的蛋白合成明显增强。7d后p65,ERK2的蛋白合成达到高峰。第14天,ERK2与p65的蛋白合成较第7天减弱。反义组、诱骗组、反义 诱骗组较模型组、正义组、诱骗对照组各时相点蛋白合成均减弱。结论:增殖的平滑肌细胞核因子κB p65基因表达增加,核因子κB调控单核细胞化学趋化因子1的基因表达和蛋白质水平。血管球囊损伤后,血管平滑肌细胞增殖有动态性变化。局部转染核因子κB反义和诱骗寡核苷酸能抑制所调控靶基因表达。     

Thrombin receptor expression in normal and atherosclerotic human arteries.

Thrombin is a multifunctional serine protease generated at sites of vascular injury. A host of thrombin actions on vascular endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and macrophages has been defined in cell culture systems, but the in vivo significance of these activities is unknown. We have defined the expression of the recently identified receptor for thrombin in human arteries by both in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. In normal-appearing arteries, thrombin receptor was expressed almost exclusively in the endothelial layer. By contrast, in human atheroma, the receptor was widely expressed, both in regions rich in macrophages and in regions rich in vascular smooth muscle cells and mesenchymal-appearing intimal cells of unknown origin. Thrombin receptor was expressed by human vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells in culture and by macrophages obtained by bronchioalveolar lavage, thus demonstrating that all three cell types are indeed capable of expressing the thrombin receptor. These results establish thrombin receptor activation as a candidate for contributing to sclerotic and inflammatory processes in the human vasculature, such as those that occur in atherosclerosis and restenosis.     

有机阴离子转运蛋白1在人血管平滑肌细胞表达的意义

[目的]检测有机阴离子转运蛋白1(OAT1) mRNA和蛋白质在人血管平滑肌细胞的表达以及尿酸刺激对其表达的影响.[方法]分离培养人脐动脉血管平滑肌细胞,提取细胞总RNA,RT-PCR方法扩增特异性OAT1 cDNA片断,制备探针,用Northern blot方法检测OAT1 mRNA的表达,提取细胞膜蛋白和总蛋白,用Western blot方法检测OAT1的蛋白表达;用800 μmol/L的尿酸刺激细胞,观察OAT1的表达变化.[结果]从人血管平滑肌细胞检测到OAT1 mRNA和蛋白的表达.尿酸可以明显增强OAT1的表达.[结论]人血管平滑肌细胞有明确的OAT1表达,OAT1可能部分介导了血管平滑肌细胞对尿酸的摄取过程.     

The discoidin domain receptor tyrosine kinase DDR1 in arterial wound repair

Collagens act as important signaling molecules regulating vascular smooth muscle cell responses during arterial wound repair. Discoidin domain receptors (DDRs) are a novel class of receptor tyrosine kinases that bind to several collagens and stimulate matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) production, but little is known about their expression and function in the vasculature. We posited a critical role for the DDRs controlling smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation and thus repair following arterial injury. Smooth muscle cells were isolated from the aortas of mice with a targeted deletion of the DDR1 gene (DDR1-null) and studied in culture using models that mimic critical steps in neointimal thickening. Our studies suggest that DDR1 plays an important role in regulating attachment to collagen, chemotaxis, proliferation, and MMP production in smooth muscle cells. Following mechanical injury to the carotid arteries, cross-sectional area of the neointima was significantly lower in DDR1-null mice than in wild-type mice. There was also a significant decrease in collagen deposition in the injured arteries of the DDR1-null mice. Our results support the hypothesis that DDR1 plays an important role as a collagen receptor, mediating intimal thickening after vascular injury.     

Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 is expressed in human coronary atherosclerotic plaques. Implications for the mode of progression of advanced coronary atherosclerosis.

Endothelial attachment is the initial step in leukocyte recruitment into developing atherosclerotic lesions. To determine whether vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) expression may play a role in inflammatory cell recruitment into human atherosclerotic lesions, immunohistochemistry was performed with a polyclonal rabbit antisera, raised against recombinant human VCAM-1, on 24 atherosclerotic coronary plaques and 11 control coronary segments with nonatherosclerotic diffuse intimal thickening from 10 patients. Immunophenotyping was performed on adjacent sections to identify smooth muscle cells, macrophages, and endothelial cells. To confirm VCAM-1-expressing cell types, double immunostaining with VCAM-1 antisera and each of the cell-specific markers and in situ hybridization were performed. All atherosclerotic plaques contained some VCAM-1, compared to 45% of control segments. VCAM-1 was found infrequently on endothelial cells at the arterial lumen din both plaques (21%) and in control segments (27%), but was prevalent in areas of neovascularization and inflammatory infiltrate in the base of plaques. Double immunostaining and in situ hybridization confirmed that most VCAM-1 was expressed by subsets of plaque smooth muscle cells and macrophages. The results document the presence of VCAM-1 in human atherosclerosis, demonstrate VCAM-1 expression by human smooth muscle cells in vivo, and suggest that intimal neovasculature may be an important site of inflammatory cell recruitment into advanced coronary lesions.     

Monocyte transmigration induced by modification of low density lipoprotein in cocultures of human aortic wall cells is due to induction of monocyte chemotactic protein 1 synthesis and is abolished by high density lipoprotein.

Incubation of cocultures of human aortic endothelial (HAEC) and smooth muscle cells (HASMC) with LDL in the presence of 5-10% human serum resulted in a 7.2-fold induction of mRNA for monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), a 2.5-fold increase in the levels of MCP-1 protein in the coculture supernatants, and a 7.1-fold increase in the transmigration of monocytes into the subendothelial space of the cocultures. Monocyte migration was inhibited by 91% by antibody to MCP-1. Media collected from the cocultures that had been incubated with LDL induced target endothelial cells (EC) to bind monocyte but not neutrophil-like cells. Media collected from cocultures that had been incubated with LDL-induced monocyte migration into the subendothelial space of other cocultures that had not been exposed to LDL. In contrast, media from separate cultures of EC or smooth muscle cells (SMC) containing equal number of EC or SMC compared to coculture and incubated with the same LDL did not induce monocyte migration when incubated with the target cocultures. High density lipoprotein HDL, when presented to cocultures together with LDL, reduced the increased monocyte transmigration by 91%. Virtually all of the HDL-mediated inhibition was accounted for by the HDL2 subfraction. HDL3 was essentially without effect. Apolipoprotein AI was also ineffective in preventing monocyte transmigration while phosphatidylcholine liposomes were as effective as HDL2 suggesting that lipid components of HDL2 may have been responsible for its action. Preincubating LDL with beta-carotene or with alpha-tocopherol did not reduce monocyte migration. However, pretreatment of LDL with probucol or pretreatment of the cocultures with probucol, beta-carotene, or alpha-tocopherol before the addition of LDL prevented the LDL-induced monocyte transmigration. Addition of HDL or probucol to LDL after the exposure to cocultures did not prevent the modified LDL from inducing monocyte transmigration in fresh cocultures. We conclude that cocultures of human aortic cells can modify LDL even in the presence of serum, resulting in the induction of MCP-1, and that HDL and antioxidants prevent the LDL induced monocyte transmigration.     

Human interleukin 1 induces interleukin 1 gene expression in human vascular smooth muscle cells

The recognition that cells of the vascular wall can secrete cytokines such as IL-1 suggests new mechanisms for initiating or sustaining inflammatory responses in blood vessels. We report that purified human monocyte-derived IL-1 or recombinant human IL-1 (rIL-1 beta and rIL-1 alpha) induce cultured human smooth muscle cells derived from veins or arteries to synthesize IL-1 beta mRNA and produce and release biologically active IL-1. rIL-1 beta also stimulated the production of PGE2 by smooth muscle cells. Exposure to rIL-1 beta (1-100 ng/ml), or rIL-1 alpha (0.01-10 ng/ml) increased IL-1 beta mRNA levels within 30 min. Actinomycin D (1 microgram/ml) prevented the induction of IL-1 beta mRNA by rIL-1. IL-1 alpha mRNA was detected in SMC treated with cycloheximide (1 microgram/ml) and rIL-1 beta, or cycloheximide alone. rIL-1 alpha and rIL-1 beta produced maximal levels of IL-1 beta mRNA after 4 h, and intracellular IL-1 biological activity after 6 h of exposure. Release of IL-1 activity in the extracellular medium began after 1 h of incubation with rIL-1 beta or rIL-1 alpha, and continued for up to 24 h. Anti-TNF antiserum that neutralized the biological activity of rTNF did not affect rIL-1-induced production of IL-1 beta mRNA or IL-1 release, suggesting that the release of TNF does not mediate these processes. Several experimental approaches indicated that the release of IL-1 by smooth muscle cells was not due to endotoxin contamination of the IL-1 preparations. Anti-IL-1 antiserum blocked the induction of smooth muscle cell IL-1 gene expression by rIL-1 beta. Polymyxin B did not prevent IL-1-induced IL-1 expression by these cells, but blocked the effect of endotoxin. Heat treatment destroyed the stimulatory capacity of rIL-1 beta, but did not affect the ability of bacterial endotoxin to induce IL-1 expression. The production of IL-1 by human vascular smooth muscle cells was not due to contamination of the cell cultures with blood monocytes, inasmuch as treatment with an antimonocyte antibody (anti-Mo2) and complement did not alter IL-1 beta mRNA content or the amount of IL-1 released from the cells in response to endotoxin, rIL-1 alpha, or rIL-1 beta.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Induction of sustained expression of proto-oncogene c-fms by platelet-derived growth factor, epidermal growth factor, and basic fibroblast growth factor, and its suppression by interferon-gamma and macrophage colony-stimulating factor in human aortic medial smooth muscle cells.

Vascular medial smooth muscle cells migrate, proliferate and transform to foam cells in the process of atherosclerosis. We have reported that the intimal smooth muscle cells express proto-oncogene c-fms, a characteristic gene of monocyte-macrophages, which is not normally expressed in medial smooth muscle cells. In the present study, we demonstrated that combinations of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB and either epidermal growth factor (EGF) or fibroblast growth factor (FGF) induced high expression of c-fms in normal human medial smooth muscle cells to the level of intimal smooth muscle cells or monocyte-derived macrophages, whereas c-fms expression by PDGF-BB alone was 1/10 and both EGF and FGF had no independent effect on c-fms expression. By contrast, interferon (IFN)-gamma and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) suppressed the induction of c-fms expression. These results indicate that multiple growth factors and cytokines may play a role in the phenotypic transformation of medial smooth muscle cells to intimal smooth muscle cells in atherosclerotic lesions by altering c-fms expression.     

Atherosclerosis]

Atherosclerosis is vascular disease characterized by thickening, hardening, and remodelling of the arterial wall. Occlusive vascular disease most often results from thrombosis superimposed on atherosclerotic plaque. Lipoproteins enter the vessel wall, promoting the recruitment of monocytes, which imbibe lipids and become foam cells. Smooth muscle cells invade these early plaques, producing connective tissue fibrils that form a fibrous cap over the lipid center; rupture of this cap is an important cause of thrombosis. The specific topography of early atherosclerotic lesions is primarily attributed to wall shear stress, one of hemodynamic forces. Inflammatory mediators regulate processes that determine the composition of the plaque's fibrous cap, a structure that separates blood from the thrombogenic lipid core. Factors involved in coagulation, such as thrombin, can regulate non-thrombotic functions of vascular wall cells such as smooth muscle proliferation or cytokine release. Tissue factor is a major regulator of coagulation and hemostasis. When the plaques are ruptured or eroded, exposure of cellular and extracellular tissue factor to circulating blood play a pivotal role in mediating fibrin-rich thrombus formation leading to acute coronary syndromes. Several serial angiographic studies have demonstrated that over 70% of acute coronary syndromes evolve from mildly to moderately obstructive atherosclerotic plaques.     

A neutrophil derived factor(s) stimulates [3H]thymidine incorporation by vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro

There is increasing evidence for the involvement of inflammatory cells in the development of intimal hyperplasia. This study examines the effect of human neutrophils on the incorporation of [3H]-thymidine into acid precipitable materials (DNA) in cultured rabbit vascular smooth muscle cells. Co-culture of intact neutrophils and vascular smooth muscle cells caused [3H]-thymidine incorporation by these cells to increase 209 +/- 22% (mean +/- SEM) of control. Sonication of the neutrophils abolished this effect (117 +/- 10%). Neutrophil conditioned medium prepared in the presence or absence of fetal calf serum had a similar effect on [3H]-thymidine incorporation by vascular smooth muscle cells (204 +/- 20% and 172 +/- 17% respectively). Stimulation of neutrophils with either Concanavalin A or serum-activated zymosan failed to increase production of the factor(s). The neutrophil derived factor(s) prepared in minimal essential medium was partially stable at 56 degrees C, but inactivated by boiling. Dialysis (pore size 12,000-14,000) did not remove the factor(s). Cyclooxygenase inhibition with indomethacin did not inhibit production of the factor(s) by neutrophils, but indomethacin caused an increase in [3H]-thymidine incorporation by vascular smooth muscle cells (181 +/- 11%). Indomethacin together with intact neutrophils had an additive effect on [3H]-thymidine incorporation (273 +/- 42%) into cellular DNA. These data show that neutrophils produce a factor(s) that stimulates [3H]-thymidine incorporation into DNA by vascular smooth muscle cells and suggests that vascular smooth muscle proliferation and intimal hyperplasia may be initiated by neutrophils adherent to sites of endothelial injury.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Regulation of smooth muscle cell scavenger receptor expression in vivo by atherogenic diets and in vitro by cytokines.

Scavenger receptor (ScR)-mediated uptake of modified lipoproteins may contribute to the transformation of smooth muscle cells into lipid-laden foam cells during atherogenesis. This study examined the in vivo expression of ScRs in aortas, with or without balloon injury, taken from hypercholesterolemic or normocholesterolemic rabbits. Numerous intimal cells in the rabbit aortic lesions expressed ScRs as detected by immunocytochemical staining with a goat anti-rabbit ScR antibody. Single immunostaining for cell identification markers in serial sections, as well as double staining, confirmed the expression of ScRs by both intimal smooth muscle cells and macrophages. To explore potential inducers of ScR expression by smooth muscle cells in vivo, we studied the regulation of ScR expression in vitro by cytokines known to be present in atherosclerotic lesions. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) or interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) increased ScR mRNA levels, protein expression, and AcLDL degradative activity in cultured rabbit aortic smooth muscle cells. The induction of ScR expression in intimal smooth muscle cells in vivo could be a useful marker of smooth muscle cell activation during atherogenesis and may contribute to foam cell formation by this cell type following balloon injury and/or hypercholesterolemia. Cytokines, such as TNF-alpha or IFN-gamma, may stimulate some of the phenotypic changes that characterize the alteration in gene expression of intimal smooth muscle cells in rabbit atherosclerotic lesions.     

Vitronectin in atherosclerotic disease

Atherosclerosis is characterized by the development of an intimal thickening that contains monocytes, T lymphocytes, and smooth muscle cells within an accumulation of lipid and extracellular matrix proteins. Vitronectin is a plasma glycoprotein implicated as a regulator of diverse physiological process, including blood coagulation, fibrinolysis, pericellular proteolysis, complement dependent immune responses, and cell attachment and spreading. Because of its ability to bind platelet glycoproteins and mediate platelet adhesion and aggregation at sites of vascular injury, vitronectin has become an important mediator in the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis.     

Adrenomedullin in monocytes and macrophages: possible involvement of macrophage-derived adrenomedullin in atherogenesis.

Macrophages secrete a variety of growth factors, cytokines and vasoactive peptides, which are related to the progression of atherosclerosis. Adrenomedullin (ADM) is a potent vasodilator peptide and inhibits proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells. In this study, we investigated the production and secretion of ADM by monocytes and macrophages by Northern blot analysis, RIA and immunocytochemistry. Northern blot analysis showed that ADM mRNA was expressed in human monocytes obtained from peripheral blood and monocyte-derived macrophages. The expression level of ADM mRNA in monocyte-derived macrophages was about five times higher than that in monocytes. Treatment with lipopolysaccharide (100 ng/ml) for 24 h increased ADM mRNA expression levels in both monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages. The levels of immunoreactive ADM in the media of monocyte-derived macrophages were about three times higher than that of monocytes (0. 718+/-0.046 fmol/24 h/10(5) cells, n=8 compared with 0.259+/-0.018 fmol/24 h/10(5) cells, n=8; mean+/-S.E.M., P<0.01). The secretion was also increased by treatment with lipopolysaccharide. Immunocytochemistry showed positive ADM immunostaining in macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions of human aorta obtained at autopsy. ADM secreted from activated macrophages may play an inhibitory role in atherogenesis.     

Distinct patterns of expression of fibroblast growth factors and their receptors in human atheroma and nonatherosclerotic arteries. Association of acidic FGF with plaque microvessels and macrophages.

Because fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) modulate important functions of endothelial cells (EC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC), we studied FGF expression in human vascular cells and control or atherosclerotic arteries. All cells and arteries contained acidic (a) FGF and basic (b) FGF mRNA. Northern analysis detected aFGF mRNA only in one of five control arteries but in all five atheroma tested, while levels of bFGF mRNA did not differ among control (n = 3) vs. plaque specimens (n = 6). Immunolocalization revealed abundant bFGF protein in control vessels (n = 10), but little in plaques (n = 14). In contrast, atheroma (n = 14), but not control arteries (n = 10), consistently exhibited immunoreactive aFGF, notably in neovascularized and macrophage-rich regions of plaque. Because macrophages colocalized with aFGF, we tested human monocytoid THP-1 cells and demonstrated accumulation of aFGF mRNA during PMA-induced differentiation. We also examined the expression of mRNA encoding FGF receptors (FGFRs). All cells and arteries contained FGFR-1 mRNA. Only SMC and control vessels had FGFR-2 mRNA, while EC and some arteries contained FGFR-4 mRNA. The relative lack of bFGF in plaques vs. normal arteries suggests that this growth factor may not contribute to cell proliferation in advanced atherosclerosis. However, aFGF produced by plaque macrophages may stimulate the growth of microvessels during human atherogenesis.