Laparoscopic splenectomy in children--a multicenter experience

Purpose

Splenectomy is frequently required in children for various hematologic pathologic findings. Because of progress in minimally invasive techniques, laparoscopic splenectomy (LS) has become feasible. The objective of this report is to present a multicenter experience of 159 laparoscopic splenectomies.

Methods

Records of 159 children, who underwent LS in 3 pediatric surgery centers between 1996 and 2006, were reviewed retrospectively with a special questionnaire. The indication for splenectomy were hematologic disorders (147), esophageal varices (6), splenic cyst (5), and tumor of the tail of the pancreas (1). The LS was performed using standard laparoscopic technique and instrumentation.

Results

There were 75 boys and 84 girls. Median age was 12.5 years (range, 2-19.4 years). Laparoscopic splenectomy alone was performed in 118 cases and LS with cholecystectomy or cholecystotomy in 36. In 5 cases, LS was performed together with fundoplication. Eight LS required conversion to an open procedure for following reasons: severe bleeding (3), massive splenomegaly (1), anatomical (2), and technical aspects (2). Accessory spleens were identified in 20 cases (12.6%). There was no mortality. Complications consisted of 8 conversions and postoperatively of mild generalized infection in 3 children and abdominal bleeding that resulted in re-laparoscopy in 1 case.

Conclusions

Laparoscopic splenectomy can be safely and effectively performed in children.     

腹腔镜脾切除术的技术改进

目的总结完全经腹腔镜行脾切除术的手术技巧. 方法需行脾切除术的患者20例,包括肝硬化继发性脾亢4例,脾假性囊肿1例,遗传性球形细胞增多症1例,原发性血小板减少性紫癜14例.采用4孔法进腹,先结扎切断脾蒂,将脾脏放入标本袋中,用电动子宫旋切器切成条状分次取出. 结果 1例因大出血中转开腹,余19例均成功.脾切除术操作时间平均195(135～270)min. 结论腹腔镜脾切除术安全可行、创伤小、费用不高, 值得临床推广.     

Splenectomy reduces packed red cell transfusion requirement in children with sickle cell disease

Purpose

The purpose of the study was to measure the effect of splenectomy on packed-cell transfusion requirement in children with sickle cell disease.

Methods

Thirty-seven sickle cell children who underwent splenectomies between January 2000 and May 2006 at a children's hospital were reviewed. Data were collected 6 months preoperatively to 12 months postsplenectomy. Paired t test, analysis of variance, and multivariable regression analyses were performed.

Results

Of 37 children with median age 11 years (range, 2-18 years), 34 (21 males) had data that allowed analyses. Twenty-six had Hgb-SS, 5 had Hgb-SC, and 3 had Hgb S-Thal. Laparoscopic splenectomy was attempted in 36 and completed successfully in 34 (94% success). The number of units transfused decreased by 38% for 0 to 6 months and by 45% for 6 to 12 months postsplenectomy. Postoperatively, hematocrit levels increased and reticulocytes concurrently decreased with a reduction in transfusion clinic visits. The decrease in transfusion was not influenced by spleen weight, age, or hemoglobin type. Two children had acute chest syndrome (6%), and 1 had severe pneumonia (3%).

Conclusion

Laparoscopic splenectomy can be successfully completed in sickle cell children. Splenectomy significantly reduces the packed red cell transfusion requirement and frequency of clinic visits, in sickle cell children for at least 12 months postoperatively.     

Laparoscopic Splenectomy for a Lymphangioma of the Spleen: Report of a Case

We present the first case report of a suc-cessful laparoscopic complete excision of a splenic lymphangioma. The splenic tumor was preoperatively diagnosed to be a lymphangioma by the combined modalities of ultrasonography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and angiography. A laparoscopic splenectomy was subsequently performed and the pathological examination of the mass confirmed the diagnosis of a lymphangioma. Based on the above findings, a laparoscopic splenectomy is recommended when a splenic tumor is suspected to be either benign or borderline. Received: March 13, 2000 / Accepted: September 26, 2000     

减少腹腔镜脾切除术术中出血的初步体会

目的探讨预防和减少腹腔镜脾切除术(laparoscopic splenectomy,LS)术中出血的手术技巧和措施。方法2008年1月～2010年3月行LS 40例。脾动脉位于胰尾上缘者,先分离并结扎脾动脉主干,离断脾周韧带;脾动脉位于胰尾后方或胰尾内者,先离断脾周围韧带和剥离胰尾,显露和离断脾蒂血管,完成LS。结果完成LS 31例,LS联合LC 7例,LS联合胆囊切除,贲门周围血管离断术2例。术中切除副脾3例。手术时间90～210 min,平均130 min;出血量50～800 ml,平均160 ml。术后12～24 h胃肠蠕动恢复,术后24 h拔胃管后进食。术后住院5～9 d,平均7.5 d。1例特发性血小板减少性紫瘢(idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura,ITP)术后效果不佳,血小板一直<50×109/L,口服泼尼松20 mg/d维持治疗;23例ITP随访4个月～2年,平均1年,无复发;2例门脉高压症随访1年,未发生消化道出血。结论围手术期改善凝血,提高血小板计数,术前行脾动脉CT血管造影,手术时在胰腺上缘结扎脾动脉,分离脾周围韧带时避免撕裂脾包膜,妥善处理脾蒂血管,谨慎对待门脉高压症患者,可减少LS术中出血。     

Vacuum Stabilization of the Spleen in Laparoscopic Splenectomy

Background and Objectives:

Recovery from laparoscopic splenectomy is greatly enhanced when compared with recovery from the laparotomy approach, yet a minority of spleens are removed laparoscopically. The spleen is smooth, rounded, and vascular, making it difficult to directly grasp, stabilize, or retract laparoscopically. The LiVac Retractor is a laparoscopic liver retractor comprising a soft silicone open ring that apposes 2 substantially planar surfaces when a vacuum is applied. It was evaluated for its efficacy in stabilization of the spleen during 2 laparoscopic splenectomies.

Methods:

The 2 patients gave consent for laparoscopic splenectomy with splenic retraction using the LiVac Retractor. The entire 3-port laparoscopic procedure was video recorded, with the resected spleens weighed as wet specimens. The patients'' postoperative courses are described.

Results:

The spleen was retracted securely for the duration of the hilar dissection in both patients. Exposure of the splenic hilum was excellent. There were no visible signs of injury to either spleen and recovery of both patients was unremarkable.

Conclusions:

The LiVac Retractor provided stable retraction and excellent exposure of the splenic hilum during both laparoscopic splenectomies, without organ injury. Early hilar dissection with vascular control was facilitated, reducing the risk of bleeding from other components of the dissection.     

Splenectomy and partial splenectomy improve hematopoietic stem cell engraftment in hypersplenic mice

Background

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) engraftment is delayed after transplantation in children with hypersplenism, increasing the morbidity and costs of care. Preliminary clinical data suggest that splenectomy before HSC transplantation may improve HSC engraftment, although this observation has not been tested in an animal model.

Methods

We performed total splenectomy (n = 22), partial splenectomy (n = 16), or sham laparotomy (n = 21) on erythrocyte protein 4.2 knockout mice, a murine model of hereditary spherocytosis with hypersplenism. After 10 days, we lethally irradiated the mice, transplanted 3 × 10⁶ allogeneic bone marrow cells, and then assessed engraftment using serial complete blood counts. Successful engraftment was defined as recovery of hemoglobin, neutrophil, or platelet counts. We compared engraftment rate using χ² test and time to engraftment using Student's t test analysis, with significance defined as P < .05.

Results

Total splenectomy increased the rate of successful HSC engraftment and decreased the interval to HSC engraftment compared with controls. Similarly, partial splenectomy decreased the interval to HSC engraftment, with a nonsignificant trend toward improved overall rate of successful HSC engraftment.

Conclusion

Partial or total splenectomy before HSC transplantation improves HSC engraftment in hypersplenic mice. This model supports consideration of splenic resection in hypersplenic children requiring HSC transplantation.     

脾切除治疗血液病64例分析

目的探讨脾切除对血液病的治疗效果、适应证以及术后并发症。方法回顾分析1996年1至2008年1月哈尔滨医科大学附属第一临床医学院外科治疗64例血液病病人的临床资料,探讨脾切除对血液病的治疗效果、术后并发症及预防措施。结果脾切除对原发性血小板减少性紫癜、遗传性球形红细胞增多症、自身性免疫性溶血性贫血、真性红细胞增多症的治疗效果确切,有效率分别为84%、100%、60%和50%;对非霍奇金病、骨髓纤维化、慢性粒细胞白血病治疗效果欠佳。结论脾切除对内科治疗无效的良性血液病行之有效,对恶性血液系统疾病需慎重选择。     

腹腔镜脾切除与开腹脾切除治疗肝硬变门静脉高压致脾功能亢进疗效比较的系统评价

目的系统评价腹腔镜脾切除（LS）与开腹脾切除（OS）治疗肝硬变门静脉高压致脾功能亢进的疗效。方法计算机检索了Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials、Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews、Medline、Embase、CINAHL、CBM、CNKI、VIP和万方数据库中,所有关于LS术（LS组）与OS术（OS组）治疗肝硬变门静脉高压致脾功能亢进的随机对照试验和临床同期对照试验。根据纳入和排除标准筛选文献、提取资料和进行质量评价后,采用RevMan 5.1.0软件进行Meta分析。结果共纳入17篇临床同期对照试验和1篇随机对照试验。Meta分析结果显示：LS组患者的术中出血量、术后住院时间、术后并发症发生率及术后1 d的白细胞水平均低（短）于OS组（P〈0.05）;其手术时间、术后7 d的白细胞水平、术后血小板计数（1 d和7 d）、术后丙氨酸氨基转移酶水平（1 d和7 d）和术后总胆红素水平（1 d和7 d）与OS组比较差异均无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论 LS术有助于减少肝硬变门静脉高压致脾功能亢进患者的术中出血量,缩短术后住院时间,减少术后并发症的发生;但目前的证据尚不能证明LS术能改善此类患者的肝功能。     

PK等离子刀在腹腔镜脾切除术中的应用

目的探讨PK等离子刀在腹腔镜脾切除术(laparoscopicsplenectomy,LS)中的应用。方法对5例特发性血小板减少性紫癜患者采用PK等离子刀行LS术。结果5例均顺利完成手术,手术时间平均140(70～260)min。术中出血量平均120(50～640)ml。无中转开腹,术后无继发出血。结论PK等离子刀凝血功能强,术中出血少,是较理想的切割止血工具;使用PK等离子刀行LS安全可行,且效果良好。     

Partial splenectomy: Who,when and how. A systematic review of the 2130 published cases

Background/PurposeIn order to avoid consequences of total splenectomy (including severe postsplenectomy sepsis), partial splenectomy (PS) is increasingly reported. Without guidelines and indications concerning a rarely-indicated procedure, a review of literature should be an asset.MethodsA systematic review of all PSs from 1960 to December 2017 was performed, with special focus on surgical indications, sites of resection, approaches and techniques of vascular dissection and parenchymal section/hemostasis of the spleen, perioperative morbidity/mortality, including complications compelling to perform total splenectomy.ResultsAmong 2130 PSs, indications for resection were hematological disease in 1013 cases and nonhematological conditions in 1078, including various tumors in 142 and trauma in 184. Parenchymal transection was performed using several techniques through the years, most frequently after having induced partial ischemia by splenic hilum vascular dissection/ligation. 371 laparoscopic/robotic PSs were reported. Rescue total splenectomy was required in 75 patients.ConclusionsAlthough good results are probably overestimated by such a retrospective review, PS should be considered as a procedure associated with a low morbidity/mortality. Nevertheless, severe complications are also reported, and the need of total splenectomy should not to be minimized. Laparoscopic/robotic procedures are increasingly performed, with good results and rare conversions.Type of studySystematic review.Level of evidenceIV.     

Partial splenectomy using a coupled saline-radiofrequency hemostatic device

BACKGROUND: Partial splenectomy is indicated for benign tumors and cysts of the spleen, as well as, operative management of splenic trauma limited to one pole of the spleen. Despite improved technique, bleeding from the cut surface of the spleen still remains an obstacle. METHODS: We describe our technique for partial splenectomy using a new device based on coupling saline with radiofrequency energy to achieve hemostasis while dividing the splenic parenchyma. RESULTS: Use of this technique has led to blood loss of less than 50 cc, while achieving splenic preservation.     

Partial splenectomy for hereditary spherocytosis: a multi-institutional review

Background/Purpose

Partial splenectomy has emerged as a surgical option for selected children with hereditary spherocytosis, with the goal of reducing anemia while preserving splenic function. This multi-institutional study is the largest series to date examining outcomes data for partial splenectomy in patients with hereditary spherocytosis.

Methods

Data were collected retrospectively from 5 North American pediatric hospitals. Sixty-two children underwent partial splenectomy for hereditary spherocytosis between 1990 and 2008.

Results

At 1 year following partial splenectomy, mean hemoglobin significantly increased by 3.0 ± 1.4 g/dL (n = 52), reticulocyte count decreased by 6.6% ± 6.6% (n = 41), and bilirubin level decreased by 1.3 ± 0.9 mg/dL (n = 25). Patients with poor or transient hematologic response were found to have significantly more splenic regeneration postoperatively compared with patients with a durable clinical response (maximal spleen dimension, 9.0 ± 3.4 vs 6.3 ± 2.2 cm). Clinically significant recurrence of anemia or abdominal pain led to completion splenectomy in 4.84% of patients. No patients developed postsplenectomy sepsis.

Conclusions

Our multi-institutional review indicates that partial splenectomy for hereditary spherocytosis leads to sustained and clinically significant improvement in hematologic profiles and clinical symptoms in most patients. Our data support partial splenectomy as an alternative for selected children with hereditary spherocytosis.     

Wandering spleen in children: multicenter retrospective study

Wandering spleen in children is a rare condition. The diagnosis is difficult, and any delay can cause splenic ischemia. An epidemiologic, semiological, and surgical diagnosis questionnaire on incidence of wandering spleen in children was sent to several French surgical teams. We report the results of this multicenter retrospective study.Fourteen cases (6 girls, 8 boys) were reported between 1984 and 2009; the age range varies between 1-day-old and 15 years; 86% were seen in the emergency department. Ninety-three percent had diffuse abdominal pain. For 57% of the cases, it was their first symptomatic episode of this type. No diagnosis was established based on the clinical results alone. All patients had presurgical imaging diagnosis. Open surgery was performed on 64% cases. Forty-three had splenectomy for splenic ischemia. Thirty-six percent had splenopexy, 14% had laparoscopic gastropexy, and 7% had spleen repositioning and regeneration. Complications were noted in 60% of the cases resulting in postsplenopexy splenic ischemia.Early diagnosis and surgery are the best guarantee for spleen preservation. Even if the choice of one technique, splenopexy or gastropexy, can be argued, gastropexy has the advantage of avoiding splenic manipulation and restoring proper physiologic anatomy. When there is no history of abdominal surgery, laparoscopy surgery seems the best procedure.     

Splenectomy in hematologic diseases. Indications, technics and early results. A retrospective study of 1095 cases

Since July 1st, 1958, we have operated 1095 patients with some hematological disease. We review the chief currently accepted surgical indications for splenectomy (Hodgkin's disease no longer being one of them, or seldom so), and we communicate our results pertaining to the immediate postsurgical period. Mortality and morbidity have been 1.36% and 3.28%, respectively. In over 95% of cases, there have been no complications. The low incidence (1.36%) of infection-related complications was partly due to the important number of splenic drains placed. High quality results can only be achieved when tight collaboration exists between hematologists, radiologists and surgeons.     

Laparoscopic Partial Adrenalectomy for Bilateral Pheochromocytomas

Background  Patients with hereditary pheochromocytoma are at risk of the development of bilateral disease. Partial adrenalectomy can preserve adrenal function to avoid the morbidity associated with medical adrenal replacement. Here, we report a multimedia case study of synchronous bilateral partial adrenalectomy by the laparoscopic approach. Methods  A 13-year-old patient with von Hippel-Lindau disease was found to have high urinary metanephrines and normetanephrines. Computed tomography showed bilateral adrenal tumors (2.5 cm on the right side and 0.9 cm on the left). MIBG scan showed positive uptake in the right adrenal gland without extra-adrenal uptake. After adequate adrenergic blockade, the patient underwent laparoscopic partial adrenalectomy bilaterally. Results  The left side was approached first with the patient in the right decubitus position. Intraoperative ultrasound was performed to determine the line of tumor excision, which was carefully planned to preserve most of the normal-appearing gland. Both tumors were excised completely with good hemostasis. The main adrenal veins of both sides were precisely preserved. Operative time was 228 minutes. No clinically important hemodynamic fluctuations were noted. Pathologic examination confirmed bilateral entirely excised pheochromocytomas. The patient has not required exogenous corticosteroid replacement at follow-up. Conclusion  Laparoscopic partial adrenalectomy for bilateral pheochromocytomas is safe and technically feasible. It should be considered the treatment of choice for hereditary pheochromocytoma. Electronic supplementary material  to this article is available at .     

Massive Splenomegaly in Children: Laparoscopic Versus Open Splenectomy

Background and Objectives:

Laparoscopic splenectomy for massive splenomegaly is still a controversial procedure as compared with open splenectomy. We aimed to compare the feasibility of laparoscopic splenectomy versus open splenectomy for massive splenomegaly from different surgical aspects in children.

Methods:

The data of children aged <12 years with massive splenomegaly who underwent splenectomy for hematologic disorders were retrospectively reviewed in 2 pediatric surgery centers from June 2004 until July 2012.

Results:

The study included 32 patients, 12 who underwent laparoscopic splenectomy versus 20 who underwent open splenectomy. The mean ages were 8.5 years and 8 years in the laparoscopic splenectomy group and open splenectomy group, respectively. The mean operative time was 180 minutes for laparoscopic splenectomy and 120 minutes for open splenectomy. The conversion rate was 8%. The mean amount of intraoperative blood loss was 60 mL in the laparoscopic splenectomy group versus 110 mL in the open splenectomy group. Postoperative atelectasis developed in 2 cases in the open splenectomy group (10%) and 1 case in the laparoscopic splenectomy group (8%). Oral feeding postoperatively resumed at a mean of 7.5 hours in the laparoscopic splenectomy group versus 30 hours in the open splenectomy group. The mean hospital stay was 36 hours in the laparoscopic splenectomy group versus 96 hours in the open splenectomy group. Postoperative pain was less in the laparoscopic splenectomy group.

Conclusion:

Laparoscopic splenectomy for massive splenomegaly in children is safe and feasible. Although the operative time was significantly greater in the laparoscopic splenectomy group, laparoscopic splenectomy was associated with statistically significantly less pain, less blood loss, better recovery, and shorter hospital stay. Laparoscopic splenectomy for pediatric hematologic disorders should be the gold-standard approach regardless of the size of the spleen.     

Partial splenectomy prevents splenic sequestration crises in sickle cell disease

Purpose

Acute splenic sequestrations (SSs) are potentially fatal complications in sickle cell disease (SCD). Total splenectomies in young patients may predispose them to a higher risk of overwhelming infections, whereas partial splenectomy may maintain immunocompetence. We present our series of partial splenectomies in patients with multiple SS episodes.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the records of 6 patients who underwent open partial splenectomies for SS. Data on their clinical courses were collected and analyzed.

Results

None of the 6 patients had SS postprocedure, down from 2.1 ± 1.0 (P = .003) sequestrations per year and 3.5 ± 1.4 (P = .002) total sequestrations per patient. The transfusion requirements were significantly reduced postoperatively (10.2 ± 5.6 vs 2.0 ± 3.1 per year; P = .002). There was no increase in the infection-related hospital admissions during the period of follow-up (1.5 ± 1.8 vs 0.8 ± 0.8 per year after partial splenectomy; P = .363). The upper pole was preserved in all cases with blood supply off the main splenic artery.

Conclusions

Partial splenectomy decreases the risk of SS in SCD and reduces the need for blood transfusions. Infection rates did not increase after the procedure during the follow-up period. Partial splenectomy should be considered for patients who experience multiple acute SS crises or have long-term transfusion requirements.     

Partial splenectomy before a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in children

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) engraftment is delayed in children with hypersplenism, and splenectomy may improve HSC engraftment. However, the use of total splenectomy in children is limited because of concerns for postsplenectomy sepsis. In this study, the authors sought to assess the role of partial splenectomy for children with hypersplenism undergoing HSC transplantation.

Methods

Five children with a variety of conditions and associated hypersplenism underwent partial splenectomy before an HSC transplantation at the authors' institution between 2000 and 2003. Primary outcome measures were rates of neutrophil and platelet engraftment. Secondary outcome measures included perioperative complications, splenic regrowth, graft-versus-host disease, and infection rate. All outcomes were compared with recipients of an HSC transplant from both age-matched nonsplenectomized children (n = 497) and hypersplenic children who underwent total splenectomy (n = 10). Outcomes were compared using Wilcoxon's rank sum test.

Results

The rate of both neutrophil and platelet engraftment was faster in children who underwent either partial or total splenectomy as compared with nonsplenectomized children (mean rates of neutrophil engraftment were 26, 19, and 19 days for the nonsplenectomy, total splenectomy, and partial splenectomy groups, respectively; mean rates of platelet engraftment were 97, 37, and 45 days for the nonsplenectomy, total splenectomy, and partial splenectomy groups, respectively). Graft-versus-host disease rates were similar between the 3 groups. The mean percentage of splenic regrowth after partial splenectomy was 39%. There were no perioperative complications.

Conclusions

Partial splenectomy may be safely performed before HSC transplantation and, similar to total splenectomy, may improve the rate of HSC engraftment. Although this series has a limited number of patients, the use of partial splenectomy appears to be safe and may allow for splenic salvage to minimize the risk of postsplenectomy sepsis.     

腹腔镜脾部分切除术20例诊治分析

目的:探讨腹腔镜脾部分切除术的安全性及可行性,并总结诊治经验、围手术期处理与体会。方法:回顾分析2012年3月至2018年10月行腹腔镜脾部分切除术患者的临床资料,分析整理临床数据。结果:共入选20例患者,其中男6例,女14例;16~61岁,平均(37.5±14.9)岁。20例手术均成功完成,无一例中转开放手术。手术时间75~280 min,平均(172.0±56.1)min;术中出血量20~300 mL,平均(110.5±75.8)mL。病灶位于脾脏上极13例,脾脏中下极7例。术后病理证实:脾脏囊肿10例,脾血管瘤4例,脉管瘤3例,卵巢癌脾脏转移1例,反应性炎性假瘤2例。随访10~86个月,平均(25.0±8.7)个月,未见复发病例。结论:腹腔镜脾部分切除术是安全、可行的,在切除病灶的同时保留了正常脾脏功能。具体手术方案及术中配合应根据病灶部位、性质、术者习惯等灵活调整。