Papillomatosis in Buffaloes: A Less‐Known Disease

Scant information is available on papillomatosis in buffaloes, and it is an almost unknown disease. It has been described from India, Italy and Turkey. Buffalo papillomatosis occurs in cutaneous and mucosal forms. Cutaneous papillomatosis is manifested as cutaneous wart (CW) and teat papilloma types. The condition is known to be caused by bovine papillomaviruses (BPV)‐1 and 2 and their mixed infections. Buffalo CWs are experimentally transmissible to hamsters, cattle as well as buffaloes. Once BPV establishes infection in buffaloes, infection spreads from buffalo to buffalo, without cattle intermediary. Histologically, CWs are mostly diagnosed as fibropapillomas. The mucosal form occurs as urinary bladder tumours similar to enzootic bovine haematuria which is also associated with bracken fern infested areas. BPVs are yet to be demonstrated in teat papillomas and urinary bladder tumours of buffalo cases. Papillomatosis in buffaloes is a little‐known disease, but it is a separate infectious ailment of buffaloes and deserves more attention by researchers.     

Serological Evidence of Brucella abortus Prevalence in Punjab Province,Pakistan – A Cross‐Sectional Study

Twenty‐one villages in Punjab Province, seven from each region (North, Central & South) were randomly selected to determine the prevalence of B. abortus infection by two age categories (Group A: 0–2 years; Group B: >2 years) in cattle and buffalo populations. In each village, eight blood samples were collected from each age group of cattle and buffaloes. Sera from a total of 672 blood samples (336 each from cattle and buffaloes) were analysed for the presence of antibodies to B. abortus using rose bengal plate agglutination test (RBPT). Further confirmation of the RBPT‐positive samples was carried out using competitive ELISA. Overall, 43 of 672 (6.4%) sera were found positive for the presence of antibodies to B. abortus using RBPT. In cattle, the prevalence of B. abortus antibody was 5.06%, and in buffaloes, it was 7.74%. From the RBPT‐positive sera, 30 (70%) sera were confirmed for B. abortus antibodies using competitive ELISA. Results indicated that the prevalence of infection increased with the age of animals i.e. 3.27% and 9.52% in groups A and B, respectively. In cattle, incidence of these antibodies was 3.57% and 6.54% while in buffaloes, it was 2.98% and 12.50% in groups A and B, respectively. The region‐wise prevalence of B. abortus infection in buffaloes was 3.13%, 4.46% and 4.02% and in cattle, it was 3.13%, 1.79% and 2.68% in Northern, Central and Southern regions, respectively. This study provided baseline data on the occurrence of brucellosis infection in cattle and buffaloes at village level. This is the first study in Punjab province on the prevalence of brucellosis at village level.     

Bovine Tuberculosis and Brucellosis in Cattle and African Buffalo in the Limpopo National Park,Mozambique

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) and brucellosis are prevalent in buffaloes of the Kruger National Park (KNP, South Africa). Both diseases were considered to have no or a very low prevalence in wildlife and livestock in and around the Limpopo National Park (LNP, Mozambique). The same applies for tuberculosis in Gonarezhou National Park (GNP, Zimbabwe), but just recently, BTB was detected in buffaloes in the GNP and fears arose that the disease might also spread to the LNP as a result of the partial removal of the fences between the three parks to form the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park. To assess the status of both diseases in and around LNP, 62 buffaloes were tested for bovine tuberculosis (BTB) and bovine brucellosis. The percentage of positive BTB reactors in buffalo was 8.06% using BovidTB Stat‐Pak^® and 0% with BOVIGAM^® IFN‐γ test and IDEXX ELISA. The brucellosis seroprevalence in buffalo was found to be 17.72% and 27.42% using Rose Bengal Test (RBT) and ELISA, respectively. In addition, 2445 cattle in and around the LNP were examined for BTB using the single intradermal cervical comparative tuberculin test (SICCT), and an apparent prevalence of 0.98% was found with no significant difference inside (0.5%) and outside (1.3%) the park. This is the first published report on the presence of positive reactors to BTB and bovine brucellosis in buffalo and cattle in and outside the LNP. Monitoring the wildlife–livestock–human interface of zoonotic high‐impact diseases such as BTB and brucellosis is of outmost importance for the successful implementation and management of any transfrontier park that aims to improve the livelihoods of the local communities.     

Characteristics of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Viral Strains Circulating at the Wildlife/livestock Interface of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) inflicts severe economic losses within infected countries and is arguably the most important trade‐restricting livestock disease in the world. In southern Africa, infected African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) are the major reservoir of the South African Territories (SAT) types of the virus. With the progressive expansion of transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs), the risk of FMD outbreaks is expected to increase due to a higher probability of buffalo/livestock contacts. To investigate the dynamics of FMD within and around the Great Limpopo TFCA (GLTFCA), 5 herds of buffaloes were sampled in June 2010 to characterize circulating viruses in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Three SAT‐2 and three SAT‐3 viral strains were isolated in both countries, including one that was genetically linked with a recent SAT‐2 outbreak in Mozambique in 2011. In addition, two groups of unvaccinated cattle (n = 192) were serologically monitored for 1 year at the wildlife/livestock interface of Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) in Zimbabwe between April 2009 and January 2010, using the liquid‐phase blocking ELISA (LPBE) and a test for antibodies directed against non‐structural proteins (NSP). Neither clinical signs nor vaccination of cattle were reported during the study, yet a high proportion of the monitored cattle showed antibody responses against SAT‐3 and SAT‐1. Antibodies against NSP were also detected in 10% of the monitored cattle. The results of this study suggest that cattle grazing in areas adjacent to the GLTFCA can be infected by buffalo or other infected livestock and that cattle trade movements can act as efficient disseminators of FMD viruses to areas several hundred kilometres from the virus source. Current methods of surveillance of FMD at the GLTFCA interface seem insufficient to control for FMD emergence and dissemination and require urgent reassessment and regional coordination.     

Detection of BPV‐1 and ‐2 and Quantification of BPV‐1 by Real‐Time PCR in Cutaneous Warts in Cattle and Buffaloes

Bovine cutaneous warts (CWs) were investigated in Northern India. Of 49 cases, 44 were recorded in cattle and 5 in buffaloes. These animals had mild to moderate grade infections. Grossly, cases of CWs appeared to be of exophytic type, however, different types of growth patterns were observed. A total of 26 biopsies (cattle 21 and buffaloes 5) from CWs‐affected animals studied histopathologically were diagnosed as exophytic and cauliflower‐like fibropapilloma 13, exophytic and dome‐shaped fibropapilloma 5, occult and/or fibroblastic type papilloma 3, cauliflower‐like papilloma 3, endophytic fibropapilloma 1 and fibroma 1. On PCR analysis, 11 CWs and 2 normal skin samples showed BPV‐1, ‐2 mixed infections. A rapid, sensitive and reliable real‐time SYBR Green PCR test to detect BPV‐1, BPV‐2 and to quantify BPV‐1 was developed. Results of amplification and dissociation plot of real‐time PCR revealed that six samples were BPV‐1 positive, eight were BPV‐2 positive and six were positive for both BPV‐1 and ‐2. CWs samples from different dairy farms testing positive for BPV‐1 by PCR assay were also positive using Quantitative real‐time SYBR Green PCR assay. For the first time, mixed infection of BPV‐1 and ‐2 was detected in India and BPV‐1 load was quantified by real‐time SYBR Green PCR assay.     

Detection of Bovine Papilloma Viruses in Wart‐Like Lesions of Upper Gastrointestinal Tract of Cattle and Buffaloes

In present investigation, etiopathological characterization of upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT) tumours of cattle and buffaloes was undertaken. A total of 27 GIT wart‐like lesions in rumen, reticulum, mouth and oesophagus of cattle and buffaloes revealed the presence of small nodular to larger spherical or slender growths with thin base present on mucosa and ruminal pillar. Histopathologically, these cases were diagnosed as fibropapilloma/papilloma. This is the first world record on ruminal papillomatosis in buffaloes. Ruminal warts of cattle and buffaloes revealed the presence of BPV‐5, ‐1 & ‐2, which is the first report of presence of these BPVs in the ruminal warts from India. Quantitative real‐time PCR revealed that DNA samples of different GIT wart‐like lesions contained varying amount of BPV DNA copy numbers. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the PCNA and Ki67 immunopositivity was present in the basal and spinosum layer of the fibropapilloma/papilloma, indicating these as the cellular proliferation site. In conclusion, the present investigation revealed that BPV‐5, ‐1 & ‐2 are associated with certain ruminal wart‐like lesions/growths in cattle and buffaloes, and the basal and spinosum layer of the ruminal fibropapilloma/papilloma were cellular proliferation sites.     

The role of African buffalo in the epidemiology of foot‐and‐mouth disease in sympatric cattle and buffalo populations in Kenya

Quantitative knowledge on the contribution of African buffalo to the epidemiology of foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) in East Africa is lacking, and this information is essential for the design of control programs in the region. The objective of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of FMDV in buffalo, including the role of buffalo in the circulation of FMDV in livestock populations. We collected blood and oropharyngeal fluids from 92 wild buffalo and 98 sympatric cattle in central Kenya and sequenced the virus’ VP1 coding region. We show that FMDV has a high seroprevalence in buffalo (~77%) and targeted cattle (~93%). In addition, we recovered 80 FMDV sequences from buffalo, all of which were serotype SAT1 and SAT2, and four serotype O and A sequences from sympatric cattle. Notably, six individual buffalo were co‐infected with both SAT1 and SAT2. Amongst sympatric buffalo and cattle, the fact that no SAT1 or 2 sequences were found in cattle suggests that transmission of FMDV from buffalo to sympatric cattle is rare. Similarly, there was no evidence that serotype O and A sequences found in cattle were transmitted to buffalo. However, viruses from FMDV outbreaks in cattle elsewhere in Kenya were closely related to SAT1 and SAT2 viruses found in buffalo in this study, suggesting that FMDV in cattle and buffalo do not constitute independently evolving populations. We also show that fine‐scale geographic features, such as rivers, influence the circulation of FMDV in buffalo and that social segregation amongst sympatric herds may limit between‐herd transmission. These results significantly advance our understanding of the ecology and molecular epidemiology of FMDV at wildlife–livestock interfaces in East Africa and will help to inform the design of control and surveillance strategies for this disease in the region.     

Factors associated with the prevalence of antibodies against Brucella abortus in water buffaloes from Santarém,Lower Amazon region,Brazil

We evaluated the factors associated with the prevalence of antibodies against Brucella abortus in buffaloes in the municipality of Santarém, Western Pará, northern Brazil. The study was conducted on 60 farms, representing 25.8% of the total buffalo farms in the region. From those farms, a total of 426 buffaloes were sampled, males of any age and females more than 24 months of age, to avoid a false‐positive reaction in the serological test due to vaccination. The Acidified Agglutination Serum Test was carried out on serum samples using B. abortus strain 1,119–3 as the antigen. Univariate and multivariate analysis were performed to investigate the association between brucellosis and potential risk factors. Of the 426 tested buffaloes, 29 were positive, resulting in an overall animal prevalence of antibodies against B. abortus at the animal level of 6.8% (4.6–9.6; 95% confidence interval). The herd level prevalence was 30% (18 of 60) and seroprevalence range within farms was from 0% to 100%. At the animal level, buffaloes raised in the floodplains tended (p = 0.06) to present a higher seroprevalence (9.70%) of antibodies against B. abortus than buffaloes raised in dry land (4.98%) and cows tended (p = 0.054) to have a higher seroprevalence than male buffaloes. Multivariate herd‐level analysis revealed association between farm type and brucellosis seroprevalence (p = 0.015); dairy farms were two times more likely to have seropositive buffalo than beef farms. Our survey demonstrated a high farm seroprevalence of B. abortus in buffalo raised in an Amazonian ecosystem with positive animals found in one third of sampled farms.     

Molecular detection and genetic diversity of Bartonella species in large ruminants and associated ectoparasites from the Brazilian Cerrado

Currently, five Bartonella species and an expanding number of Candidatus Bartonella species have globally been reported in ruminants. Likewise, different Bartonella genotypes were identified. However, studies relating to ruminant‐associated Bartonella in Brazil are scarce. The current study aimed to assess the prevalence and genetic diversity of Bartonella in cattle, buffaloes and associated ectoparasites in Brazil. For this purpose, EDTA‐blood samples from 75 cattle and 101 buffaloes were sampled. Additionally, 128 Rhipicephalus microplus and one Amblyomma sculptum ticks collected from cattle, and 197 R. microplus, one A. sculptum and 170 lice (Haematopinus tuberculatus) collected from buffaloes were included. Bartonella DNA was initially screened through an HRM real‐time PCR assay targeting the 16S–23S internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and the positive samples were submitted to an additional HRM assay targeting the ssrA gene. The HRM‐positive amplicons were sequenced, and the nucleotide identity was assessed by BLASTn. Bartonella spp.‐positive DNA samples were analysed by conventional PCR assays targeting the gltA and rpoB genes, and then, the samples were cloned. Finally, the phylogenetic positioning and the genetic diversity of clones were assessed. Overall, 21 of 75 (28%) cattle blood samples and 13 of 126 (10.3%) associated ticks were positive for Bartonella bovis. Out of 101 buffaloes, 95 lice and 188 tick DNA samples, one (1%) buffalo and four (4.2%) lice were positive for Bartonella spp. Conversely, none of the ticks obtained from buffaloes were positive for Bartonella. The Bartonella sequences from buffaloes showed identity ranging from 100% (ITS and gltA) to 94% (ssrA) with B. bovis. In contrast, the Bartonella DNA sequences from lice were identical (100%) to uncultured Bartonella sp. detected in cattle tail louse (Haematopinus quadripertusus) from Israel in all amplified genes. The present study demonstrates the prevalence of new B. bovis genotypes and a cattle lice‐associated Bartonella species in large ruminants and their ectoparasites from Brazil. These findings shed light on the distribution and genetic diversity of ruminant‐ and ectoparasite‐related Bartonella in Brazil.     

Antibodies Against Foot‐and‐mouth Disease (FMD) Virus in African Buffalos (Syncerus caffer) in Selected National Parks in Uganda (2001–2003)

In East Africa, the foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) isolates have over time included serotypes O, A, C, Southern African Territories (SAT) 1 and SAT 2, mainly from livestock. SAT 3 has only been isolated in a few cases and only in African buffalos (Syncerus caffer). To investigate the presence of antibodies against FMDV serotypes in wildlife in Uganda, serological studies were performed on buffalo serum samples collected between 2001 and 2003. Thirty‐eight samples from African buffalos collected from Lake Mburo, Kidepo Valley, Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth National Parks were screened using Ceditest^® FMDV NS to detect antibodies against FMDV non‐structural proteins (NSP). The seroprevalence of antibodies against non‐structural proteins was 74%. To characterize FMDV antibodies, samples were selected and titrated using serotype‐specific solid phase blocking enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISAs). High titres of antibodies (≥1 : 160) against FMDV serotypes SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3 were identified. This study suggests that African buffalos in the different national parks in Uganda may play an important role in the epidemiology of SAT serotypes of FMDV.     

l‐Cysteine improves antioxidant enzyme activity,post‐thaw quality and fertility of Nili‐Ravi buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) bull spermatozoa

The effects of l ‐cysteine in extender on antioxidant enzymes profile during cryopreservation, post‐thaw quality parameters and in vivo fertility of Nili‐Ravi buffalo bull spermatozoa were studied. Semen samples from 4 buffalo bulls were diluted in Tris–citric acid‐based extender having different concentrations of l ‐cysteine (0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 mm ) and frozen in 0.5‐ml French straws. The antioxidative enzymes [catalase, super oxide dismutase and total glutathione (peroxidase and reductase)] were significantly higher (P < 0.05) at pre‐freezing and post‐thawing in extender containing 2.0 mm l ‐cysteine as compared to other groups. Post‐thaw total motility (%), progressive motility (%), rapid velocity (%), average path velocity (μm s^?1), straight line velocity (μm s^?1), curvilinear velocity (μm s^?1), beat cross frequency (Hz), viable spermatozoa with intact plasmalemma (%), acrosome and DNA integrity (%) were higher with the addition of 2.0 mm l ‐cysteine as compared to other groups (P < 0.05). The fertility rates (59 versus 43%) were higher (P < 0.05) in buffaloes inseminated with doses containing 2.0 mm of l ‐cysteine than in the control. In conclusion, the addition of 2.0 mm l ‐cysteine in extender improved the antioxidant enzymes profile, post‐thaw quality and in vivo fertility of Nili‐Ravi buffalo bull spermatozoa.     

Description of Events Where African Buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) Strayed from the Endemic Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Zone in South Africa, 1998–2008

African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) are reservoir hosts of Southern African Territories (SAT) foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) virus strains. In South Africa, infected buffaloes are found in the FMD‐infected zone comprising the Kruger National Park (KNP) and its adjoining reserves. When these buffaloes stray into livestock areas, they pose a risk of FMD transmission to livestock. We assessed 645 records of stray buffalo events (3124 animals) from the FMD infected zone during 1998–2008 for (i) their temporal distribution, (ii) group size, (iii) age and gender composition, (iv) distance from the infected zone fence and (v) outcome reported for each event. A maximum entropy model was developed to evaluate spatial predictors of stray buffalo events and assess current disease control zones. Out of all buffaloes recorded straying, 38.5% escaped from the FMD infected zone during 2000/2001, following floods that caused extensive damage to wildlife fences. Escape patterns were not apparently influenced by season. The median size of stray groups was a single animal (IQR [1–2]). Adult animals predominated, comprising 90.4% (620/686) of the animals for which age was recorded. Of the 315 events with accurate spatial information, 204 (64.8%) were recorded within 1 km from the FMD infected zone. During late winter/spring (June–October), stray buffaloes were found significantly closer to the FMD infected zone (median = 0.3 km, IQR [0.1–0.6]). Less than 13% (40/315) of stray groups reached the FMD protection zone without vaccination, posing a higher risk of spreading FMD to these more susceptible livestock. Model outputs suggest that distance from the FMD infected zone, urban areas and permanent water sources contributed almost 85% to the spatial probability of stray buffalo events. Areas with a high probability for stray buffalo events were well covered by current disease control zones, although FMD risk mitigation could be improved by expanding the vaccination zone in certain areas.     

Identification and Epidemiology of a Rare HoBi‐Like Pestivirus Strain in Bangladesh

The genus pestivirus of the family flaviviridae consists of four recognized species: bovine viral diarrhoea virus 1 (BVDV‐1), bovine viral diarrhoea virus 2 (BVDV‐2), classical swine fever virus and border disease virus. A new putative pestivirus species tentatively named as either ‘HoBi‐like pestivirus’ or BVDV‐3 has recently been identified in Brazil, Italy and Thailand. Despite reports of serological evidence of BVDV in Bangladesh, the types of the virus circulating in cattle have not been identified. We conducted surveillance in cattle from May 2009 to August 2010 in three government veterinary hospitals to characterize BVDV in cattle of Bangladesh. We tested serum for BVDV using an antigen‐capture ELISA. Of 638 cattle samples, 3% (16/638) tested positive for BVDV antigen. The ELISA‐positive samples were selected for further molecular detection and characterization of BVDV. Molecular analysis of the partial 5′ untranslated region (UTR) nucleotide sequences of BVDV‐positive samples identified the rare HoBi‐like pestivirus or BVDV‐3 virus circulating in cattle of Bangladesh. The identification of this rare HoBi‐like pestivirus or BVDV‐3 strain in Bangladesh warrants further surveillance to evaluate its impact on livestock production.     

Further characterization of bovine hepacivirus: Antibody response,course of infection,and host tropism

Bovine hepacivirus (BovHepV) is a recently added member to the growing genus Hepacivirus within the family Flaviviridae. Animal hepaciviruses are rarely characterized so far. Apart from norway rat hepacivirus which represents a promising HCV surrogate model, only equine hepaciviruses have been studied to some extent. BovHepV has been initially identified in bovine samples and was shown to establish persistent infections in cattle. However, consequences of those chronic infections, humoral immune response and the possibility of an extended host spectrum have not been explored so far. Therefore, we here investigated (a) the presence of anti‐NS3‐antibodies and viral RNA in cattle herds in Germany, (b) the course of infection in cattle, and (c) the host tropism including zoonotic potential of bovine hepaciviruses. Our results show that 19.9% of investigated bovine serum samples had antibodies against BovHepV. In 8.2% of investigated samples, viral RNA was detected. Subsequent genetic analysis revealed a novel genetic cluster of BovHepV variants. For 25 selected cattle in a BovHepV positive herd the presence of viral genomic RNA was monitored over one year in two to three months intervals by RT‐PCR in order to discriminate acute versus persistent infection. In persistently infected animals, no serum antibodies were detected. Biochemical analyses could not establish a link between BovHepV infection and liver injury. Apart from a single sample of a pig providing a positive reaction in the antibody test, neither BovHepV‐specific antibodies nor viral RNA were detected in porcine, equine or human samples implying a strict host specificity of BovHepV.     

Spontaneous Cutaneous Papillomatosis in Yaks and Detection and Quantification of Bovine Papillomavirus‐1 and ‐2

Seven clinical cases of cutaneous papillomatosis in yaks were studied in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Sporadic, single or a chain of multiple varying size warts appeared around the eyes or on the body. Predominant site of warts was around eyes. Histopathologically, these cases were diagnosed as fibropapilloma. It was confirmed by the detection of BPV‐1 and BPV‐2 or their mixed infection by PCR and sequencing. Quantitative SYBR Green real‐time PCR detected comparatively lower viral DNA copy number in cutaneous warts (CWs). Cases of CWs and its causative agent as bovine papillomavirus (BPVs) are reported for the first time in yaks.     

Evidence for Circulation of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus Type 2c in Ruminants in Southern Italy

Recently, bovine viral diarrhoea virus type 2c (BVDV‐2c) was responsible for a severe outbreak in cattle in northern Europe. Here, we present the results of an epidemiological survey for pestiviruses in ruminants in southern Italy. Pooled serum samples were obtained from 997 bovine, 800 ovine, 431 caprine and eight bubaline farms, and pestiviral RNA was detected by molecular methods in 44 farms consisting of 16 cattle and one buffalo herds and of 21 sheep and six goat flocks. Twenty‐nine and 15 farms were infected by BVDV‐1 and BVDV‐2 strains, respectively. BVDV‐1 strains were recovered mainly from cattle and were heterogeneous, belonging to the subtypes 1b, 1u, 1e, 1g and 1h. In contrast, all BVDV‐2 viruses but two were detected in sheep or goats and were characterized as BVDV‐2c by sequence analysis of 5′UTR. These strains displayed high genetic identity to BVDV‐2c circulating in cattle in northern Europe and were more distantly related to a BVDV‐2c isolate recovered from a cattle herd in southern Italy more than 10 years before. The circulation of a BVDV‐2c in small ruminants suggests the need for a continuous surveillance for the emergence of pestivirus‐induced clinical signs in southern Italian farms.     

Seminal plasma immunoglobulins of the Indian buffalo

Seminal plasma immunoglobulins of normospermic fertile Indian buffalo bulls were investigated using rabbit antibuffalo immunoglobulin (polyvalent) serum, rabbit antibuffalo IgG and IgM serums, gel diffusion, and immunoelectrophoretic analysis. Immunoglobulin G was the predominant immunoglobulin in the seminal plasma of the buffalo. Strong antigenic cross reactions were observed between the seminal plasma IgG molecules of the buffalo and cattle, indicating the structural homology of seminal plasma IgG of these two species. These observations are in accordance with the close taxonomic and phylogenetic relationship between buffalo and cattle in the evolution of ruminant species.     

Malignant Catarrhal Fever: An Emerging Disease in the African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer)

Within the tribe Bovini in the subfamily Bovinae, the water buffalo (Bubalus Bubalis), American bison (Bison bison), European bison (Bubalus bonasus) and yak (Bos grunniens) are recognized as species highly susceptible to malignant catarrhal fever (MCF). In contrast, the lack of reports describing clinical MCF in the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) whether free ranging or captive has led to a perception that African buffaloes are resistant to MCF. During the last decade, several cases of MCF in African buffaloes were confirmed in South Africa and experience with seven of these cases is described in this report. Detection of viral nucleic acid in blood or tissues was successful in six African buffaloes that suffered from clinical signs compatible with MCF. Four were positive for infection with ovine herpesvirus type 2 (the causative virus of sheep‐associated MCF), and two were positive for alcelaphine herpesvirus type 1 (causative virus of wildebeest‐associated MCF). Histopathological examination of tissue samples from all the animals yielded typical lesions that were consistent with those described for MCF in domestic cattle. Developments in the management of African buffaloes translocated from their traditional habitats have likely contributed to the identification of another susceptible host in the subfamily Bovinae.     

Immunopathologic Changes in the Thymus of Calves Pre‐infected with BVDV and Challenged with BHV‐1

The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of pre‐infection with bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) on thymus immune cells from calves challenged with bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV‐1). Twelve Friesian calves, aged 8 to 9 months, were inoculated with non‐cytopathic BVDV‐1. Ten of them were subsequently challenged with BHV‐1 and euthanized in batches of two at 1, 2, 4, 7 or 14 dpi with BHV‐1. The other two calves were euthanized prior to the second inoculation and were used as BVDV‐infected controls. A further 10 calves were inoculated solely with BHV‐1 and euthanized at the same time points. Two calves were not inoculated with any agent and were used as negative controls. Quantitative changes in immune cells were evaluated with immunohistochemical methods to compare coinfected calves and calves challenged only with BHV‐1. The results of this study pointed out BVDV as responsible for the thymic lesions observed in the experiment as well as for the majority of immunopathologic changes, including a downregulation of Foxp3 lymphocytes and TGFβ, which reverted as BVDV was cleared, and an overexpression of medullary CD8+ T cells. However, despite not inducing evident lesions in the thymus, BHV‐1 seemed to prompt some immune alterations. Collectively, these data contribute to the knowledge on the immunopathologic alterations of the thymus during BVDV infections, and its importance in the development of secondary infections.     

Prevalence of Chicken Infectious Anaemia Virus (CIAV) in Commercial Poultry Flocks of Northern India: A Serological Survey

Globally, the chicken infectious anaemia virus (CIAV) has gained much importance as an immunosuppressive and economically important emerging pathogen of poultry. In recent years, the virus has been detected and isolated from poultry flocks of India. The present study reports the first sero‐epidemiological investigation of the presence of CIAV infection in poultry flocks of the country. A total of 404 serum samples were collected from chicken flocks of eleven poultry farms, which contain a total of 0.34 million birds from four Northern states, suspected of having chicken infectious anaemia (CIA). Screening of the sera samples using a commercially available enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit revealed 351 serum samples (86.88%) to be positive for CIAV antibodies. A high CIAV prevalence rate recorded in the present investigation, along with earlier virus detection reports, indicates the widespread distribution of the virus and that CIAV should be considered an economically important poultry pathogen affecting poultry industry of India. Extensive nationwide epidemiological studies are suggested for revealing the economic impact of CIA and to initiate further research along with devising and adapting suitable prevention and control strategies especially the use of suitable vaccines for safeguarding poultry health and production in the country.