Stent therapy for malignant superior vena cava syndrome: should be first line therapy or simple adjunct to radiotherapy

The goal of this paper is to present our experience with superior vena cava (SVC) stenting, as first line procedure for immediate relief, in patients with malignancy, and its potential influence in the subsequent radiotherapy (XRT). Over a 1-year period, 18 patients with SVC syndrome due to severe stenosis secondary to mediastinal malignancy were referred for stent insertion. A SVC score was used to measure treatment effectiveness. Stent insertion had been successful in 18/18 patients (technical success 100%). All patients experienced symptomatic relief within few hours of the procedure. There were no major complications. In all patients we were able to start radiotherapy (XRT) the next day, after stenting according to our new institutional protocol. All patients were able to comply with the XRT program, perfectly well. CONCLUSIONS: SVC stenting provides immediate significant relief of the very annoying SVC syndrome symptoms, thus facilitating excellent compliance of all the patients to the subsequently XRT protocols. We strongly recommend SVC stenting as first line procedure, in patients with SVC syndrome due to malignancy prior to radiotherapy.     

Subacute and chronic benign superior vena cava obstructions: endovascular treatment with self-expanding metallic stents.

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose is to report our clinical experience with patients who underwent endovascular treatment with Wallstents for subacute or chronic benign obstruction of the superior vena cava (SVC). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Twelve patients who were an average of 54 +/- 12 years old were referred for treatment of severe SVC syndrome related to implanted central venous catheters (n = 8), postradiation fibrosis (n = 2), a permanent pacemaker (n = 1), or a benign tumor (n = 1). Symptoms were present for an average of 16 weeks (range, 4-48 weeks) before treatment. Diagnosis of SVC obstruction was confirmed with helical CT and pretherapeutic phlebography. Four patients had Stanford's type II stenosis; two, type III; and six, type IV. The mean clinical and radiologic follow-up intervals were 11 months (range, 1-36 months) and 7 months (range, 1 week to 32 months), respectively. RESULTS: Recanalization was successful in all patients. Fifteen stents were implanted in the 12 patients. Stents were placed after percutaneous balloon angioplasty in nine patients, and primary stent placement was attempted in three patients. We immediately achieved a satisfactory SVC diameter in all patients, whose symptoms were relieved completely within 1 week of stent placement. No technical or clinical complications occurred. SVC syndrome recurred in one patient 2 months after stent placement and was treated by placing a second stent. CONCLUSION: Endovascular treatment with stent placement should be considered relevant and safe for refractory benign SVC syndrome. However, a larger series and a longer follow-up period are needed to define the role of stent placement for this syndrome.     

Bridging stent placement through the superior vena cava to the inferior vena cava in a patient with malignant superior vena cava syndrome and an iodinated contrast material allergy

Positioning is critical during the placement of superior vena cava (SVC) stents in patients with malignant SVC syndrome. Although SVC stents effectively relieve various symptoms of SVC syndrome, improper stent positioning may cause life-threatening complications such as migration that result in fatal cardiac failure. Here we describe a patient with an allergy to iodinated contrast material (ICM) who presented with SVC syndrome owing to mediastinal lymph node metastases from hepatocellular carcinoma, which was successfully treated with an SVC stent. Secure stent placement was achieved by bridging the stent through the SVC to the inferior vena cava with venography using carbon dioxide instead of ICM.     

The superior vena cava syndrome caused by malignant disease. Imaging with multi-detector row CT

OBJECTIVE: The superior vena cava (SVC) obstruction by malignant diseases is either by direct invasion and compression or by tumour thrombus of the SVC. Whatever is its cause, obstruction of the SVC causes elevated pressure in the veins draining into the SVC and increased or reversed blood flow through collateral vessels. Severity of the syndrome depends on the collateral vascular system development. Therefore, imaging of the collateral veins with variable location and connection is important in determining the extension and management of the disease. Our aims are to describe collateral vessels of the superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) related with the malignant diseases and to assess the ability of multi-detector row CT with multiplanar and 3D volume rendering techniques in determining and describing collateral circulations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We present CT angiography findings of seven patients with small cell carcinoma of the lung (n = 2), squamous cell carcinoma of the lung (n = 3), Hodgkin disease of the thorax (n = 1), and squamous cell carcinoma of the oesophagus (n = 1). The patients received contrast-enhanced CT scans of the chest and abdomen on a multi-detector row CT during breath holding at suspended inspiration. RESULTS: CT images revealed the cause and level of the SVC obstruction in all patients with axial and multiplanar reconstructed images. The SVC showed total obstruction in five patients and partial obstruction in two patients. The most common experienced collateral vessels were azygos vein (6), intercostal veins (6), mediastinal veins (6), paravertebral veins (5), hemiazygos vein (5), thoracoepigastric vein (5), internal mammary vein (5), thoracoacromioclavicular venous plexus (5), and anterior chest wall veins (5). While one case showed the portal-systemic shunt, V. cordis media and sinus coronarius with phrenic veins were enlarged in two cases, and the left adrenal vein was enlarged in a patient. In one case, the azygos vein with reversed blood flow was drained into both inferior vena cava and hemiazygos vein with the left renal vein. CONCLUSION: Multi-detector row CT with multiplanar and 3D imaging is an effective tool in evaluation of the SVCS and has a greater advantage than the other imaging techniques. 3D volume rendering is a useful technique in determining and describing collateral circulations in addition to the primary disease process.     

Application of expandable metallic stents to the venous system.

Expandable metallic stents were successfully introduced in 12 patients; 6 with superior vena cava (SVC) obstruction due to tumor invasion or lymph node metastases, 3 with inferior vena cava (IVC) obstruction or stenosis due to lymph node metastases or hepatic tumor, one with common iliac vein (CIV) obstruction due to lymph node metastases, one with idiopathic obstruction of the hepatic IVC and Budd-Chiari syndrome, and one with CIV obstruction following a dialysis shunt. The length of the lesions was between 2 and 15 cm. Multiple (2-7) stents in tandem were inserted percutaneously from a femoral venous approach through a 12 to 16 F (4.0-5.3 mm) Teflon sheath. Postoperatively, all 12 patients became free from symptoms such as SVC syndrome or IVC syndrome. In 11 patients, the symptoms did not recur during the follow-up periods of 1 to 21 months.     

Percutaneous management of superior vena cava occlusions

Purpose To assess the use of percutaneous endovascular stent insertion in the management of superior vena cava (SVC) occlusion.Methods Percutaneous endovascular stent insertion was attempted in 13 patients, age range 20–72 (mean 55.5) years, with symptomatic total occlusion of the SVC. Twelve patients had known malignant disease of the thorax. The other patient (age 20) had chronic SVC obstruction, the cause of which was unknown at the time of the procedure. There was initial angiographic assessment and removal of thrombus by thrombolysis (10 patients) and/or clot aspiration (3 patients). Following successful lysis or aspiration, single or multiple endovascular stents were inserted.Results The inability to cross the lesion with a guidewire prevented stent insertion in 2 patients (15.4%). There was primary success in the remaining 11 patients (84.6%), with associated symptomatic relief. Some recurrence of symptoms occurred in 5 of the 11 patients (45.5%) after a time interval ranging from 14 to 183 days. In all cases of symptomatic recurrence, patency was reestablished with further thrombolysis and/or further stent insertion. All successfully treated patients have since died. All 11 patients remained symptomatically free of SVC occlusion until death, with postprocedure survival ranging from 5 to 243 days.Conclusion The percutaneous management of complete SVC occlusion with thrombolysis and/or clot aspiration followed by stent insertion is safe and effective, giving sustained symptomatic relief.     

Covered Stent Placement for the Treatment of Malignant Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: Is Unilateral Covered Stenting Safe and Effective?

Objective

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of unilateral covered stent placement in patients with malignant superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome.

Materials and Methods

Between October 2008 and November 2012, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene-covered stent placement for malignant SVC syndrome was performed in 40 consecutive patients (35 men and five women; mean age, 61.4 years; range, 35-81 years). All covered stents were unilaterally placed within the SVC or across the venous confluence when needed to relieve venous obstruction and prevent tumor overgrowth, regardless of patency of contralateral brachiocephalic veins.

Results

Stent placement was technically successful in all patients. There were no major complications. Of the 37 patients symptomatic prior to stent placement, 34 (92%) experienced complete symptomatic relief 1-8 days after stent placement. Of the 29 patients who underwent covered stent placement across the venous confluence, nine patients had patent contralateral brachiocephalic veins prior to stent placement. However, no sign of SVC obstruction or contralateral upper extremity venous thrombosis was observed during the follow-up period. Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed median patient survival of 163 days. Stent occlusion occurred in four (10%) of 40 patents. Cumulative stent patency rates at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months were 95%, 92%, 86%, and 86%, respectively.

Conclusion

Unilateral covered stent placement appears to be a safe and effective method for treating malignant SVC syndrome, despite the location of SVC occlusion.     

Effect of neck position during radionuclide superior cavography. Its value in the diagnosis of superior vena cava obstruction due to retrosternal goiter

In five patients with substernal goiter, three of whom presented with superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome, and in five normal subjects, radionuclide superior cavography (RNSC) was performed with extension and flexion of the neck during tracer administration (simultaneous bilateral injection of Tc-99m pertechnetate). When the tracer was injected during neck extension, venous flow pattern was abnormal in four of five patients, and transit time (TT) prolonged in three of five patients. In this posture, mean TT +/- 1 standard deviation (SD) was 6.3 +/- 2.6 s (range 3.5 to 9 s) for the five patients and 3.5 +/- 0.7 s (range 2.5 to 4.5 s) for a group of five control subjects. When the tracer was injected during neck flexion, all five patients showed abnormal flow patterns and prolonged TT (mean +/- 1 SD 10.1 +/- 4.1 s; range 4.4 to 16 s), in contrast to the control group where a slight decrease in TT was found (mean +/- 1 SD 3 +/- 0.6 s; range 2 to 3.5 s). In the presence of a substernal goiter, or any mobile mass at the thoracic inlet, impairment of venous flow through the SVC system appears to be a common occurrence, readily detectable by RNSC. RNSC should be performed with neck flexion during tracer injection, since in this posture its ability to detect compromised venous flow through the SVC system is enhanced, even in patients without a clinically apparent SVC syndrome.     

Endovascular stenting in superior vena cava syndrome: utility of a through-and-through guidewire technique.

OBJECTIVE: To describe an ancillary technique when a conventional femoral approach to superior vena cava (SVC) stent placement is not feasible because of buckling of balloon catheters or stent-deployment systems during device advancement. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Three patients in whom device advancement across the SVC lesion from a femoral or axillary approach was unsuccessful were managed by accessing the right jugular vein; SVC lesions were crossed from an antegrade direction, and the jugular guidewire was secured at the femoral access site to create a through-and-through guidewire. RESULTS: Countertraction on the through-and-through guidewire during stent placement and dilation permitted unhindered advancement of stent delivery systems and catheters across the SVC. Technical and clinical success was achieved in each patient with relief of SVC syndrome within 24-72 hours. Survival ranged from 26 to 137 days. CONCLUSION: A through-and-through guidewire technique is useful when stenting a highly stenotic or thrombosed SVC in patients with superior vena cava syndrome.     

Thoracic collateral venous channels: normal and pathologic CT findings

Opacification of thoracic collateral venous channels (CVC) on chest CT is considered a useful sign of superior vena cava (SVC) obstruction, although its lack of specificity has occasionally been emphasized. We compared the degree of opacification of six various thoracic CVC in a group of 36 patients with SVC syndrome and in a control group of 50 patients; a dynamic incremental CT technique with bolus injection was used. Opacification of at least one CVC is inaccurate for the diagnosis of SVC obstruction, with a false-positive and false-negative rate of 34 and 31%, respectively. Only the opacification of the subcutaneous anterior channel provides a good specificity (96%), significantly higher (p less than 0.05) than that observed for the posterior collateral channels. In patients in whom the clinical records and other direct CT signs of vena cava obstruction are doubtful or absent, opacification of a subcutaneous anterior channel on chest CT should lead to a suspicion of obstruction of the SVC and cavography should be performed.     

Dialysis Catheter-Related Superior Vena Cava Syndrome with Patent Vena Cava: Long Term Efficacy of Unilateral Viatorr Stent-Graft Avoiding Catheter Manipulation

Central venous catheters are the most frequent causes of benign central vein stenosis. We report the case of a 79-year-old woman on hemodialysis through a twin catheter in the right internal jugular vein, presenting with superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome with patent SVC. The clinically driven endovascular therapy was conducted to treat the venous syndrome with a unilateral left brachiocephalic stent-graft without manipulation of the well-functioning catheter. The follow-up was uneventful until death 94 months later.     

螺旋CT上腔静脉造影的临床应用研究

目的探讨上腔静脉病变的螺旋CT上腔静脉造影(HCTP)的成像质量,并分析该技术在上腔静脉病变中的临床应用价值.资料与方法对22例上腔静脉异常患者应用HCTP检查,对比剂注射方案为经双侧肘前静脉以2 ml/s流率同时注射浓度为75 mgI/ml的非离子型对比剂,延迟25 s开始扫描.分析螺旋CT图像的上腔静脉强化程度、条状伪影、血流相关伪影及总体成像质量,评价HCTP的成像质量及对上腔静脉病变的显示能力和临床应用价值.结果所有22例患者成功完成了HCTP检查,所有病例的上腔静脉显示满意,仅2例出现头臂静脉的轻微的条状伪影,1例双上腔静脉畸形者出现奇静脉入口处假充盈缺损,2例MPR、MIP及SSD图像出现不同程度阶梯状伪影,但不足以影响诊断,19例二维与三维重建图像优质.22例患者中双上腔静脉畸形1例,上腔静脉阻塞21例,其中肺癌15例,淋巴瘤2例,右上肺癌术后复查1例,恶性胸腺瘤1例,静脉血栓1例,巨大升主动脉瘤压迫上腔静脉1例.HCTP准确显示了双上腔静脉畸形患者双侧上腔静脉的形态与流向,对上腔静脉阻塞的部位、程度、侧支循环及其病因显示清楚,所有病例诊断明确,临床符合率为100%,有效地指导了临床诊断和治疗.结论应用经双侧肘前静脉注射低浓度(75 mgI/ml)对比剂,并延迟25 s进行HCTP可获得优良的上腔静脉图像,可准确诊断各种上腔静脉异常,发现上腔静脉阻塞部位及其程度,显示侧支静脉,并可作出病因诊断,为临床诊断和治疗上腔静脉病变提供所需要的足够信息,有助于手术方案、介入治疗如支架放置、放疗方案的制定和疗效的评估,是目前上腔静脉最理想的无创性影像学检查方法之一.     

Computed tomography of mediastinal collaterals in SVC syndrome

A patient undergoing treatment for abdominal lymphoma presented with a superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome. The presence of a wide mediastinum and "nodular" mediastinal densities on CT presented a diagnostic problem, necessitating thoracotomy. The thoracotomy was negative for tumor or infection. We believe that the presence of an indwelling catheter and mediastinal lipomatosis resulted in the SVC syndrome. The "nodular" densities represented an unusual set of mediastinal collaterals that must be distinguished from adenopathy.     

Ectatic tumoral thrombosis of the superior vena cava revealing thyroid cancer]

Microscopic angio-invasion by carcinoma of the thyroid is known. Extension into the great veins is much more uncommon. Most of the cases which have been previously described were discovered on post-mortem examination. We report the case of a 55 year-old woman who was found to have an asymptomatic small cervical goiter 6 years ago; during the last 12 months she developed superior vena cave (SVC) syndrome radiological investigation (angiography, CT scan) and surgical exploration showed a carcinoma of the thyroid with intraluminal extension of the tumor leading to thrombosis and ectasia of the SVC. Surgery was performed with resection of the whole thyroid, the SVC and the innominate veins. A double prosthetic venous by pass was then inserted between the innominate veins and right atrium. Five years after resection, the patient has no recurrence or metastasis and no clinical symptom of SVC syndrome. To our knowledge, this is only the third reported case successfully treated by surgery.     

Superior vena cava stenting

Treatment of SVC obstruction with metallic stents is a rewarding procedure. The patients have symptoms that are severe and debilitating and cause significant impairment of life-style. Stent placement rapidly alleviates the symptoms of SVC syndrome and improves the patient's quality of life. The long-term patency rates have not been established; however, in patients with SVC syndrome secondary to malignant disease, stents usually remain patent for the lifetime of the patient. Recurrences can be treated with further interventional radiographic techniques. Currently, because the long-term patency rates of SVC stents are not known, most interventional radiologists tend to treat SVC stenosis from benign causes with balloon angioplasty before placing metallic stents.     

Long-term success of endovascular treatment of benign superior vena cava occlusion with chylothorax and chylopericardium

The most likely etiology of benign obstruction of the superior vena cava (SVC) include fibrosing mediastinitis and iatrogenic etiologies such as sclerosis and obstruction caused by pacemakers and central venous catheter. Percutaneous stenting of SVC has been used with success both in malignant and benign superior vena cava syndrome; however, long-term follow-up of endovascular procedures is not well known. We present a case of a patient with complete occlusion of SVC of benign etiology, presenting dramatically with bilateral chylothorax and chylopericardium with cardiac tamponade, who underwent successful vena caval revascularization with thrombolytic therapy and placement of self-expanding metallic stent. The 42-month follow-up could encourage endovascular procedures even in SVC syndrome of benign etiology.     

Computed tomographic evaluation of compression of the superior vena cava and its tributaries

Observations on computed tomography (CT) of 15 patients with compression of the superior vena cava (SVC) and its tributaries are reported and compared with clinical, radiographic and surgical findings. The site of compression in 14 patients was accurately determined by CT, which could delineate the presence of intraluminal clot and extrinsic compression of venous structures, as well as associated mediastinal masses. Collateral superficial vessels were identified in nine patients with contrast-enhanced scans. Contrast-enhanced mediastinal and chest CT was shown to provide detailed anatomic and physiologic information about the etiology of SVC syndrome.     

Is Long-Term Anticoagulation Required after Stent Placement for Benign Superior Vena Cava Syndrome?

Purpose

To identify whether symptom relief and stent patency vary with use of long-term anticoagulation after stent placement for benign superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome.

Fatal Pericardial Tamponade After Superior Vena Cava Stenting

We discuss a fatal complication of percutaneous superior vena cava (SVC) self-expandable stent placement in a patient with superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS). The SVCS was caused by a malignant mediastinal mass with total occlusion of the SVC. Twenty-four hours after the procedure, the patient died of a hemopericardial tamponade. In the literature, only seven cases have been described with this life-threatening complication. Patients with a necrotic tumor mass are more likely to develop this complication. Knowledge of this complication may increase patient survival.     

Vena caval and central venous stenoses: management with Palmaz balloon-expandable intraluminal stents.

Palmaz balloon-expandable intraluminal stents (BEISs) were used to treat vena caval and adjacent central venous obstructions that failed to respond to conventional balloon angioplasty. An initial series included seven patients: five had superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome due to a malignant neoplasm and/or radiation therapy, one had dialysis access-related stenosis of the subclavian vein, and one had inferior vena cava (IVC) and bilateral common iliac vein obstruction due to abdominopelvic radiation therapy for Hodgkin disease. Treatment produced clinical benefit in all seven patients. Patency was achieved with stents placed across stenoses of the SVC, IVC, and brachiocephalic and subclavian veins. One stent placed in a left common iliac vein was oval and was shown to be occluded on a follow-up computed tomographic scan, suggesting that compression between the right common iliac artery and the spine was responsible. Although caution is recommended in placement at possible compression sites, BEISs can be used to treat obstructions of the vena cava and major central veins.