Human exposure assessment resources on the World Wide Web

Human exposure assessment is frequently noted as a weak link and bottleneck in the risk assessment process. Fortunately, the World Wide Web and Internet are providing access to numerous valuable sources of human exposure assessment-related information, along with opportunities for information exchange. Internet mailing lists are available as potential online help for exposure assessment questions, e.g. RISKANAL has several hundred members from numerous countries. Various Web sites provide opportunities for training, e.g. Web sites offering general human exposure assessment training include two from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and four from the US National Library of Medicine. Numerous other Web sites offer access to a wide range of exposure assessment information. For example, the (US) Alliance for Chemical Awareness Web site addresses direct and indirect human exposures, occupational exposures and ecological exposure assessments. The US EPA's Exposure Factors Program Web site provides a focal point for current information and data on exposure factors relevant to the United States. In addition, the International Society of Exposure Analysis Web site provides information about how this society seeks to foster and advance the science of exposure analysis. A major opportunity exists for risk assessors and others to broaden the level of exposure assessment information available via Web sites. Broadening the Web's exposure information could include human exposure factors-related information about country- or region-specific ranges in body weights, drinking water consumption, etc. along with residential factors-related information on air changeovers per hour in various types of residences. Further, country- or region-specific ranges on how various tasks are performed by various types of consumers could be collected and provided. Noteworthy are that efforts are underway in Europe to develop a multi-country collection of exposure factors and the European Commission is in the early stages of planning and developing a Web-accessible information system (EIS-ChemRisks) to serve as a single gateway to all major European initiatives on human exposure to chemicals contained and released from cleaning products, textiles, toys, etc.     

Global toxicology and risk analysis: roles of the Internet and World Wide Web

There are many challenges and opportunities in being a global and/or “local” toxicologist, risk assessor, or risk manager. These include the information gathering approaches used to address human hazard identification, exposure assessment, risk characterization, risk management, risk perceptions, and needs for risk communication. Finding the best ways to keep current with the literature and other information associated with the many aspects of toxicology and risk analysis is another challenge and opportunity, as are access to good sources of training and staying aware of the applicable regulations in various countries and regions. Fortunately, a greatly increasing number of people throughout the world will have access to the Internet and World Wide Web; these systems provide 24 h a day access to numerous valuable sources of information and opportunities for training and information sharing.     

Internet resources for occupational and environmental health professionals

The Internet = s global reach offers new powerful tools to professionals in Occupational and Environmental Health (OEH). The World Wide Web includes extensive free and commercially available reference materials on toxicology, regulatory issues, environmental epidemiology and prevention programs. Much of this especially useful content is inaccessible to general Web-based search engines. Effective use of the Web requires discovery and familiarity with sites housing query engines for technical databases. Although the Web = s structure and capacity is so dynamic that any listing is incomplete, introductions to many resources are provided in this article. The Internet also offers professionals electronic access to one another, for collegial discourse. Electronic mailing lists provide assembly points for collaboration and guidance about technical issues. Several specialty forums for OEH professionals are also discussed.     

Subnational sources of toxicology information: state, territorial, tribal, county, municipal, and community resources online

The rapid assimilation data and information on the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) is reflected in the development of these electronic services by state, county, local, and other subnational agencies, departments, offices, bureaus, and intergovernmental bodies. The content of state and territorial, tribal, county, and local government Web pages varies considerably. However, information about health and the environment are among the most frequently posted resources by subnational government bodies. This article describes the environmental health and toxicology-related data and information resources provided by government agencies and representative associations for subnational government bodies. Standard reference sources for identifying subnational government bodies are described with particular reference to those in electronic and digital formats. Means for identifying and locating electronic resources are described for appropriate subnational environmental quality, environmental (public) health agencies, occupational health and safety, toxicology-related agencies and departments, emergency response, fish consumption advisories, and cancer registries are provided. Professional organizations of state, county, municipal (local) governments and intergovernmental bodies are also described.     

The Search for Alternatives

The Search for Alternatives. Rowan, A. N. (1984). Fundam. Appl.Toxicol. 4, 508–516. Animal welfare and antivivisectiongroups have protested against animal research for the last 150years. However, they have recently (ca. 20 years ago) injecteda new element into the debate by pressing for the developmentand application of alternatives. By this, they mean the developmentof techniques which could replace or reduce the use of laboratoryanimals, or the refinement of existing techniques to reduceanimal suffering. Animal welfare concerns have focused on toxicologytesting in particular. Of course, the state of the art in toxicologyhas advanced considerably in the last 20 years and some of thechanges have resulted in a reduction of the use of animals Nevertheless,the animal welfare movement seeks a more specific program whichwill review testing guidelines and support the development ofnew techniques which will reduce or eliminate animal use. Carcinogendetection, Draize eye irritancy testing, and LD50 testing arethree specific areas where the pressure for alternatives developmenthas been strongest The prospects for alternatives in each ofthese three areas are briefly discussed together with one ortwo comments about possible future trends.     

An approach to the development of in vitro toxicological methods

Over the last few years there has been increased societal pressure on the one hand and self-generated scientific pressure on the other to develop new and better in vitro techniques for the evaluation of the safety of commercial products. In vitro methodology addresses four major areas within toxicology. It provides the basic science of the discipline with new information. In acute toxicity testing, it can provide alternatives to current approaches, e.g. the Draize irritation tests. In the area of chronic toxicity testing, it will allow us to define the mechanisms associated with organ specific insults. In the area of risk assessment, the combined knowledge obtained by superior methods will allow us to assess risk more accurately. The results of studies on alternatives to the Draize irritation tests being carried out at or supported by The Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing will be reviewed.     

Internet resources for occupational and environmental health professionals

The Internet's global reach offers new powerful tools to professionals in Occupational and Environmental Health (OEH). The World Wide Web includes extensive free and commercially available reference materials on toxicology, regulatory issues, environmental epidemiology and prevention programs. Much of this especially useful content is inaccessible to general Web-based search engines. Effective use of the Web requires discovery and familiarity with sites housing query engines for technical databases. Although the Web's structure and capacity is so dynamic that any listing is incomplete, introductions to many resources are provided in this article. The Internet also offers professionals electronic access to one another, for collegial discourse. Electronic mailing lists provide assembly points for collaboration and guidance about technical issues. Several specialty forums for OEH professionals are also discussed.     

Using the Internet for research

OBJECTIVE: (1) To give an overview of research tools, techniques, and resources that are available on the Internet; and (2) to identify valid, pharmacy-related information that will reduce uncertainty in the problem-solving activities of practitioners. DATA SOURCES: The World Wide Web. STUDY SELECTION: Examples cited in the article were evaluated according to the criteria offered in the text as a prerequisite for their inclusion. DATA SYNTHESIS: Functional aspects of the Internet include communication, commerce, and content. Because a lack of control has led to mixed information quality, the use of Internet-based information for patient care and professional decision making should be subject to rigorous screening criteria. Pharmacists can use Web browsers combined with excellent search engines and search techniques to identify quality resources, including primary, secondary, and tertiary literature, either fee-based or free, and that can be sought actively or distributed on a schedule directly to the desktop of the pharmacist. CONCLUSION: The Internet can be an immensely helpful research tool, if used appropriately. Whether actively searching or passively receiving useful updates, the Internet can function as a value-added asset to any pharmacy practice.     

Focus on: information technology. Online drug information for dermatology patients

Information about medications appropriate for dermatologists and patients with skin diseases is readily available on the Internet. Authoritative educational material is supplied by academic dermatologic associations and institutions and distributed by independent websites, large health portals, and search directories. Although it is easy to find excellent dermatological drug information, the World Wide Web is dynamic and unmoderated, and patients can be misled or exploited by inaccurate or fraudulent websites. Health on the Net and other organizations have developed ethical principles to aid consumers and evaluate the quality of health-related information.     

Evaluation of modified methods for determining skin irritation

The premarket testing of household cleaning products for dermal irritancy is best achieved via human testing. Animal dermal irritation testing is generally limited to screening for possible dermal hazard of totally new or unique products or ingredients prior to human testing or to meeting regulatory requirements of government bodies. Alternatives to animal tests are being sought; however, until such time that these alternatives are identified, validated, and accepted by government bodies, the judicious use of animal testing remains a necessity. Modifications to standard animal skin irritation test procedures have been evaluated against human skin irritation results with the objective of defining one method that could be used in place of current standard procedures that differ slightly from one another, and thereby avoid excessive and redundant use of animals. Hill Top Chambers (19 mm) and standard gauze patches (U.S. Department of Transportation procedure) were used to obtain comparative irritation responses for 24 cleaning products, common caustics, and acids in rabbits and humans. Exposure times were 1 or 4 hr, and responses were graded over a 72-hr period. Results indicate that use of the Chamber offers the potential to (1) reduce the number of animals used for skin irritation screening (smaller group size and up to eight test substances/concentrations per animal); (2) eliminate the need for conducting multiple tests to satisfy different governmental requirements; and (3) reduce animal stress by reducing exposure times without compromising the value of the irritancy patch test as a screening tool. When animal data are required, it is suggested that the use of a Chamber and other modifications of traditional test procedures offers advantages that could result in using fewer animals and/or have less potential for producing unnecessarily severe responses in animals.     

Internet-based information on alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs: issues of ethics, quality, and accountability.

This article discusses ethical and quality issues involved in accessing and evaluating Internet-based information on alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATODs). After a brief overview of the World Wide Web and its potential for increasing knowledge in the fields of ATOD prevention, treatment, research, and policy, we discuss potential threats that may compromise the quality and utilization of Web-based ATOD information. Consumers and authors of Web-based materials must critically assess and evaluate that information; the Information Quality Tool developed by the Health Summit Working Group is suggested as an analytic framework useful in evaluating ATOD information. The article concludes with observations about future issues regarding dissemination of ATOD information on the Internet.     

Comments on the scientific validation and regulatory acceptance of in vitro toxicity tests

The 1980s saw widespread acceptance of the Three Rs (reduction, refinement, replacement) concept of alternatives, and a great deal of effort was put into the development of non-animal toxicity tests. Yet, although new methods are gaining acceptance as pre-screens and as adjunct methods, there is little sign that any of them will be accepted as genuine replacements for current animal test procedures. This is partly because, until recently, the question of scientific validation for relevance, reproducibility and transferability had not been properly addressed, and partly because, despite national and international laws that require that replacement alternatives be used wherever possible, little attention had been paid to promotion of their formal acceptance into regulatory toxicology. Reference is made to the recommendations of two workshops organized by members of ERGATT (European Research Group for Alternatives in Toxicity Testing) early in 1990—on validation (with the Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing) and on regulatory acceptance (with the support of the Commission of the European Communities)—which could provide a basis for meeting this challenge in the 1990s. It is argued, however, that primary responsibility for the effective and orderly development, validation, independent assessment and regulatory acceptance of non-animal toxicity tests should rest with in vitro toxicologists themselves.     

Drugs, the Internet and change

This article investigates the symbiotic relationship between drugs and the Internet, focusing (though not exclusively) on psychedelics. Programming on psychedelics in Silicon Valley from the 1960s to date is detailed, as are the twinned conceptualizations of drugs as a technology and technology as a drug. The correlation between drugs, the Internet, and consumerism is explored: the Internet is a medium through which "white," "grey" and "black" drug markets flourish. Thus, this article details the burgeoning online trades in pharmaceuticals, recreational, and "life-style" drugs that turn the Internet into a veritable candy store. Drug forums transmogrify into street corners, threatening the continued existence of the current system of global prohibition. However, it is arguably the use of the Web as an information source that may offer the greatest challenge to the incumbent paradigm, with experiential discourses offering alternatives to the hegemonic narrative, as the relationships between drugs, those who sell drugs and drug takers are reconfigured online.     

INTERNET-BASED INFORMATION ON ALCOHOL,TOBACCO, AND OTHER DRUGS: ISSUES OF ETHICS,QUALITY, AND ACCOUNTABILITY

This article discusses ethical and quality issues involved in accessing and evaluating Internet-based information on alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATODs). After a brief overview of the World Wide Web and its potential for increasing knowledge in the fields of ATOD prevention, treatment, research, and policy, we discuss potential threats that may compromise the quality and utilization of Web-based ATOD information. Consumers and authors of Web-based materials must critically assess and evaluate that information; the Information Quality Tool developed by the Health Summit Working Group is suggested as an analytic framework useful in evaluating ATOD information. The article concludes with observations about future issues regarding dissemination of ATOD information on the Internet.     

Posttreatment Outcomes of Sex and Ethnic Groups Treated in Methadone Maintenance during 1969–1972

Abstract

This article investigates the symbiotic relationship between drugs and the Internet, focusing (though not exclusively) on psychedelics. Programming on psychedelics in Silicon Valley from the 1960s to date is detailed, as are the twinned conceptualizations of drugs as a technology and technology as a drug. The correlation between drugs, the Internet, and consumerism is explored: the Internet is a medium through which “white,” “grey” and “black” drug markets flourish. Thus, this article details the burgeoning online trades in pharmaceuticals, recreational, and “life-style” drugs that turn the Internet into a veritable candy store. Drug forums transmogrify into street corners, threatening the continued existence of the current system of global prohibition. However, it is arguably the use of the Web as an information source that may offer the greatest challenge to the incumbent paradigm, with experiential discourses offering alternatives to the hegemonic narrative, as the relationships between drugs, those who sell drugs and drug takers are reconfigured online.     

Alternative methods for developmental toxicity testing

Alternatives to animal testing in developmental toxicology have been the subject of three decades of research. The aims of these investigations have been to reduce animal experimentation, to refine effect assessment and mechanistic studies, and to accelerate and simplify safety testing in an area of toxicology that uses relatively many animals. Many alternatives have been developed over the years with different compexities, using biologic material ranging from continuous cell lines to complete embryos. The validation of alternatives and their application in testing strategies is still in its infancy, although significant steps towards these aims are currently being made. The introduction of the genomics technology is a promising emerging area in developmental toxicity testing in vitro. Future application of alternatives in testing strategies for developmental toxicity may significantly gain from the inclusion of gene expression studies, given the unique programme of gene expression changes in embryonic and foetal development.     

Toxicological information on chemicals published in the Russian language: Contribution to REACH and 3Rs

This review is reporting on the current situation of publicly available toxicological and ecotoxicological information on chemicals published in Russian language in various libraries, databases as well as in the Internet. This information can be beneficial for the new EU chemical policy REACH and for the development of intelligent testing strategies (involving also QSAR and QAAR) that enable a significant increase in the use of non-testing information for regulatory decision making, thus minimizing the need for animal testing according to the 3R's strategy. Currently, the access to this information is limited due to the language barrier and low level of digitalization of respective journals and books. Fortunately, on-line translation services are overcoming language barriers already now.     

Integrated decision strategies for skin sensitization hazard

One of the top priorities of the Interagency Coordinating Committee for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) is the identification and evaluation of non‐animal alternatives for skin sensitization testing. Although skin sensitization is a complex process, the key biological events of the process have been well characterized in an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) proposed by the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD). Accordingly, ICCVAM is working to develop integrated decision strategies based on the AOP using in vitro, in chemico and in silico information. Data were compiled for 120 substances tested in the murine local lymph node assay (LLNA), direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA), human cell line activation test (h‐CLAT) and KeratinoSens assay. Data for six physicochemical properties, which may affect skin penetration, were also collected, and skin sensitization read‐across predictions were performed using OECD QSAR Toolbox. All data were combined into a variety of potential integrated decision strategies to predict LLNA outcomes using a training set of 94 substances and an external test set of 26 substances. Fifty‐four models were built using multiple combinations of machine learning approaches and predictor variables. The seven models with the highest accuracy (89–96% for the test set and 96–99% for the training set) for predicting LLNA outcomes used a support vector machine (SVM) approach with different combinations of predictor variables. The performance statistics of the SVM models were higher than any of the non‐animal tests alone and higher than simple test battery approaches using these methods. These data suggest that computational approaches are promising tools to effectively integrate data sources to identify potential skin sensitizers without animal testing. Published 2016. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.