Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction in Middle-aged Patients

Background: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) after noncardiac surgery is strongly associated with increasing age in elderly patients; middle-aged patients (aged 40-60 yr) may be expected to have a lower incidence, although subjective complaints are frequent.

Methods: The authors compared the changes in neuropsychological test results at 1 week and 3 months in patients aged 40-60 yr, using a battery of neuropsychological tests, with those of age-matched control subjects using Z-score analysis. They assessed risk factors and associations of POCD with measures of subjective cognitive function, depression, and activities of daily living.

Results: At 7 days, cognitive dysfunction as defined was present in 19.2% (confidence interval [CI], 15.7-23.1) of the patients and in 4.0% (CI, 1.6-8.0) of control subjects (P < 0.001). After 3 months, the incidence was 6.2% (CI, 4.1-8.9) in patients and 4.1% (CI, 1.7-8.4) in control subjects (not significant). POCD at 7 days was associated with supplementary epidural analgesia and reported avoidance of alcohol consumption. At 3 months, 29% of patients had subjective symptoms of POCD, and this finding was associated with depression. Early POCD was associated with reports of lower activity scores at 3 months.     

Cognitive dysfunction after minor surgery in the elderly

BACKGROUND: Major surgery is frequently associated with postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) in elderly patients. Type of surgery and hospitalization may be important prognostic factors. The aims of the study were to find the incidence and risk factors for POCD in elderly patients undergoing minor surgery. METHODS: We enrolled 372 patients aged greater than 60 years scheduled for minor surgery under general anesthesia. According to local practice, patients were allocated to either in- (199) or out-patient (173) care. Cognitive function was assessed using neuropsychological testing preoperatively and 7 days and 3 months postoperatively. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction was defined using Z-score analysis. RESULTS: At 7 days, the incidence (confidence interval) of POCD in patients undergoing minor surgery was 6.8% (4.3-10.1). At 3 months the incidence of POCD was 6.6% (4.1-10.0). Logistic regression analysis identified the following significant risk factors: age greater than 70 years (odds ratio [OR]: 3.8 [1.7-8.7], P = 0.01) and in- vs. out-patient surgery (OR: 2.8 [1.2-6.3], P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Our finding of less cognitive dysfunction in the first postoperative week in elderly patients undergoing minor surgery on an out-patient basis supports a strategy of avoiding hospitalization of older patients when possible.     

Benzodiazepines and postoperative cognitive dysfunction in the elderly. ISPOCD Group. International Study of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) has been attributed to long- acting sedatives. We hypothesized that diazepam and its active metabolites could be detected in blood after surgery and correlated with POCD, 1 week after surgery in elderly patients. We studied 35 patients, 60 yr or older, undergoing abdominal surgery with general anaesthesia, including diazepam. Neuropsychological tests were performed before surgery and at discharge, where blood concentrations (free fraction) of benzodiazepines were also measured. POCD was found in 17 patients (48.6%). Diazepam or desmethyldiazepam was detected in 34 patients; median postoperative blood concentrations were 0.06 and 0.10 microgramsmol kg-1, respectively. In a multiple regression analysis considering age, duration of anaesthesia and blood concentrations of diazepam and desmethyldiazepam, only age was found to correlate with the composite z-score (F test, P < 0.01). The postoperative cognitive dysfunction we found in elderly patients after operation could not be explained by benzodiazepine concentrations detected in blood.      

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction in middle-aged patients

BACKGROUND: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) after noncardiac surgery is strongly associated with increasing age in elderly patients; middle-aged patients (aged 40-60 yr) may be expected to have a lower incidence, although subjective complaints are frequent. METHODS: The authors compared the changes in neuropsychological test results at 1 week and 3 months in patients aged 40-60 yr, using a battery of neuropsychological tests, with those of age-matched control subjects using Z-score analysis. They assessed risk factors and associations of POCD with measures of subjective cognitive function, depression, and activities of daily living. RESULTS: At 7 days, cognitive dysfunction as defined was present in 19.2% (confidence interval [CI], 15.7-23.1) of the patients and in 4.0% (CI, 1.6-8.0) of control subjects (P < 0.001). After 3 months, the incidence was 6.2% (CI, 4.1-8.9) in patients and 4.1% (CI, 1.7-8.4) in control subjects (not significant). POCD at 7 days was associated with supplementary epidural analgesia and reported avoidance of alcohol consumption. At 3 months, 29% of patients had subjective symptoms of POCD, and this finding was associated with depression. Early POCD was associated with reports of lower activity scores at 3 months. CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction occurs frequently but resolves by 3 months after surgery. It may be associated with decreased activity during this period. Subjective report overestimates the incidence of POCD. Patients may be helped by recognition that the problem is genuine and reassured that it is likely to be transient.     

Predictors of Cognitive Dysfunction after Major Noncardiac Surgery

Background: The authors designed a prospective longitudinal study to investigate the hypothesis that advancing age is a risk factor for postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) after major noncardiac surgery and the impact of POCD on mortality in the first year after surgery.

Methods: One thousand sixty-four patients aged 18 yr or older completed neuropsychological tests before surgery, at hospital discharge, and 3 months after surgery. Patients were categorized as young (18-39 yr), middle-aged (40-59 yr), or elderly (60 yr or older). At 1 yr after surgery, patients were contacted to determine their survival status.

Results: At hospital discharge, POCD was present in 117 (36.6%) young, 112 (30.4%) middle-aged, and 138 (41.4%) elderly patients. There was a significant difference between all age groups and the age-matched control subjects (P < 0.001). At 3 months after surgery, POCD was present in 16 (5.7%) young, 19 (5.6%) middle-aged, and 39 (12.7%) elderly patients. At this time point, the prevalence of cognitive dysfunction was similar between age-matched controls and young and middle-aged patients but significantly higher in elderly patients compared to elderly control subjects (P < 0.001). The independent risk factors for POCD at 3 months after surgery were increasing age, lower educational level, a history of previous cerebral vascular accident with no residual impairment, and POCD at hospital discharge. Patients with POCD at hospital discharge were more likely to die in the first 3 months after surgery (P = 0.02). Likewise, patients who had POCD at both hospital discharge and 3 months after surgery were more likely to die in the first year after surgery (P = 0.02).     

老年患者腹部手术后认知功能障碍的高危因素分析

目的分析老年患者腹部手术后认知功能障碍(POCD)发生的高危因素。方法回顾性分析我院2000年2月至2010年10月期间60岁以上2 286例腹部手术后患者的临床资料,根据是否发生POCD将2 286例患者分为POCD组和非POCD组,其中POCD组38例,非POCD组2 248例。分析影响腹部手术后POCD发生的影响因素,包括年龄、性别、麻醉方式、术前是否用药〔地西泮和(或)阿托品或东莨菪碱〕、术前是否存在心肺疾病、术前是否有糖尿病、术前有无黄疸、术前有无贫血或低蛋白血症、手术持续时间及术后是否进行持续镇痛治疗。结果 POCD的发生与患者年龄、麻醉方式、术前是否存在心肺疾病、术前是否有糖尿病、术前有无黄疸、手术持续时间是否超过4 h、术后是否进行持续镇痛有关(P<0.05),而与患者性别、术前是否用药和术前有无贫血或低蛋白血症无关(P>0.05)。结论年龄≥70岁、全身麻醉、术前存在心肺疾病、糖尿病和黄疸、手术持续时间超过4 h、术后未进行持续有效的镇痛是腹部手术后POCD发生的高危因素。     

Pathophysiology of post-operative cognitive dysfunction: current hypotheses

Post-operative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) has been reported after a variety of surgical procedures. POCD is associated with a decline in performance of activities of daily living of elderly patients and can cause substantial damage to family and/or to social support systems. The incidence of POCD in the first week after surgery is 23% in patients between 60 and 69 years of age and 29% in patients older than 70. Cognitive dysfunction was still present in 14% of patients over 70 at three month after surgery. The risk of POCD increases with age, and the type of surgery is also important since there is very low incidence of POCD after minor surgery. For many years, it has been known that general anaesthesia is associated with persistent changes in gene expression in the brain for at least 72 hours. These observed modifications suggest an interesting hypothesis to explain the side effects of anaesthetic agents on cognitive dysfunction, particularly in the elderly. The inflammatory response to surgery is consistent with the hypothesis that inflammation contributes to cognitive decline in the elderly. Most of the drugs administered during anaesthesia interact with the cerebral cholinergic system, which seems to be impaired with ageing. One can hypothesize that this cholinergic dysfunction is a potent factor in the pathogenesis of POCD. These findings have implications for the information provided before obtaining consent from elderly patients prior to surgery; a careful evaluation of mental status is mandatory for all elderly patients undergoing general anaesthesia. Perioperative physicians should be familiar with the prevention, diagnosis, and management of postoperative cognitive dysfunction.     

心肺转流对冠状动脉旁路移植术后脑微栓子数量及认知功能障碍发生率的影响

背景手术后认知功能障碍（postoperative cognitive dysfunction,POCD）是冠状动脉旁路移植手术（CABG）后常见的并发症。心肺转流术（CPB）中的脑微栓子被认为是诱发POCD的一个重要原因。我们研究不使用体外循环的冠状动脉移植术能否减少中国人群CABG术后脑微栓子的数量及POCD发生率。方法227例患者参与了本次前瞻性队列研究。其中59例患者来自CPB组,另外168例加入非体外循环组。使用经颅多普勒超声持续测定双侧大脑中动脉内脑微栓子情况。分别在手术前、手术后1周及手术后3个月使用一套神经心理量表评估认知功能,该量表包括了7项测验,共9个小项。根据国际POCDl的研究定义来诊断POCD。结果CPB组和非体外循环组患者发生脑微栓子的平均数分别为430（155～2088）和2（0。66）（P〈0．001）。两组COPD的发生率在手术后I周及3个月均无明显差异,在第1周时CPB组发生率为55．2％（32／58,95％可信区间为41．5％-68．3％）,非体外循环组发生率为47％（78/166,95％可信区间为39．2％～54．9％,P=0．283）;手术后3个月发生率分别为6．4％13／47,（1．3％～17．5％）]和13．1％[16／122,（7．7％-20．4％,P=0．214）]。年龄增长以及手术后住院天数缩短可能与手术后1周认知功能障碍独立相关。另外年龄增长以及糖尿病史则与手术后3个月认知功能障碍独立相关。CPB或者脑微栓子与POCD的发生率无显著相关性。结论在中国人群的CABG手术中,不使用CPB可明显减h脑微栓子数目,但并不降低手术后1周或手术后3个月时POCD的发生率。CPB或脑微栓子与POCD的发生率无明显相关性。     

Increased incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction 24 hr after minor surgery in the elderly

PURPOSE: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is evident in 26% of elderly patients seven days after major non-cardiac surgery. Despite the growing popularity of day surgery, the influence of anesthetic techniques on next day POCD has not been investigated. Therefore, we evaluated the incidence of POCD and changes in serum markers of neuronal damage (S-100ss protein and Neuron-Specific Enolase), 24 hr after single-agent propofol or sevoflurane anesthesia in elderly patients undergoing minor surgery. METHODS: Patients (n = 30, mean age 73, range 65-86 yr) coming for cystoscopy or hysteroscopy, were randomized, in an observer-blind design, to receive either single-agent propofol or sevoflurane anesthesia. Changes in neuropsychological tests (the Stroop test and the modified Word-Recall Test), 24 hr postoperatively were compared with age-matched control subjects (n = 15) using Z-score analysis. Changes in S-100beta protein and Neuron-Specific Enolase levels were also documented. RESULTS: POCD was present in 7/15 [47% (95% confidence interval (CI) 21 to 72%)] patients who received propofol and 7/15 [47% (95% CI 21 to 72%)] patients who received sevoflurane, compared with 1/15 [7% (95% CI 6 to 19%)] control patients, P = 0.03. S-100beta protein and Neuron-Specific Enolase levels were not significantly different in anesthetized patients postoperatively compared with preoperative values. CONCLUSION: The incidence of POCD in elderly patients on the first day after minor surgery is higher than previously reported for seven days after major surgery, and is increased after both propofol and sevoflurane anesthesia, compared with age-matched controls. S-100beta protein and Neuron-Specific Enolase levels were unaffected by anesthetic technique.     

Postoperative Störungen der kognitiven Leistungsfähigkeit bei älteren Patienten Die Ergebnisse der „International Study of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction” (ISPOCD 1)

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive dysfunction is a known problem after operations and may be especially relevant in the elderly. The aim of this international multicentre study was to investigate short- and long-term cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients and to elucidate the relevance of hypoxaemia and hypotension as causative factors. METHODS: 1218 patients aged 60 years and older and scheduled for major non-cardiac surgery under general anaesthesia were investigated. Oxygen saturation was measured by continuous pulse oximetry before surgery and throughout the day of and the first 3 nights after surgery. Blood pressure was recorded every 3 minutes during the operation and every 15-30 min for the rest of that day and night. Cognitive testing was performed before and 1 week and 3 months after the operation. Cognitive dysfunction was identified with neuropsychological tests compared with controls recruited from the UK (n = 176) and the same countries as study centres (n = 145). RESULTS: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction was present in 25.8% of patients 1 week after surgery and in 9.9% 3 months after surgery, compared with 3.4% and 2.8%, respectively, of the UK controls. Increasing age and duration of anaesthesia, little education, a second operation, postoperative infections, and respiratory complications were the risk factors for early postoperative cognitive dysfunction, but only age was a risk factor for long-term postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Hypoxaemia and hypotension were not significant risk factors at any time. CONCLUSION: With this investigation long-term cognitive dysfunction could be proven definitively for elderly patients after major operations under general anaesthesia. No factors with prophylactic or therapeutic influence were detectable so that aetiology and pathophysiology of POCD could not be further determined.     

非心脏大手术老年患者术后认知功能障碍与术中脑氧代谢的关系

目的 探讨非心脏大手术老年患者术后认知功能的改变及与术中脑氧代谢的关系.方法 择期非心脏大手术老年患者64例,年龄65～85岁,于术前2～3 d和术后第7天时,分别由心理医师进行一次神经心理测验.在单项测验中术前与术后分值之差≥1个术前分值标准差定为认知功能受损,一个患者在2项或2项以上测验中出现认知功能受损则定为认知功能障碍.于麻醉诱导后即刻、2 h、离开麻醉恢复室时分别同步采集桡动脉和颈内静脉球部血样进行血气分析,计算脑血流量/脑氧代谢率比值(CBF/CMRO2＞20为异常).结果 61例患者完成术后神经心理测验,有10例(16.4%)发生术后认知功能障碍(POCD).logistic回归分析显示麻醉诱导后2h时CBF/CMRO2的异常与POCD发生有关.结论 非心脏手术老年患者术后POCD的发生与术中脑氧代谢异常有关.     

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction: true deterioration versus random variation

BACKGROUND: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is a common complication, especially in the elderly. The aim of this study was to describe how variability in neuropsychological testing could lead to the detection of cognitive improvement and poor consistency of POCD between postoperative test sessions. METHODS: In four published studies performed by the ISPOCD group, we included 2536 patients and 359 healthy controls. Cognitive function was assessed using neuropsychological tests preoperatively and at 7 days and 3 months thereafter, comparing the changes between those at baseline with those after surgery. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction was defined as a Z score greater than 2, and we also defined a corresponding improvement as a Z score less than -2. Consistency of POCD between postoperative test sessions was analyzed and we also assessed test-retest variability using data from healthy control subjects. RESULTS: Improvement in cognitive function was found in 4.2-8.7% of patients after 1 week and in 5.0-7.8% after 3 months. The ratio between incidence of dysfunction and improvement varied in patients between 3.3 and 6.2 early after major surgery. Of those patients who displayed POCD at the 3-month test, 30-48% also had POCD at the previous test at 1 week. The test-retest reliability was between 0.56 and 0.90, except for the error score in Concept Shifting Test, where the values were 0.20 and 0.37. CONCLUSION: Variability in neuropsychological test data contributes to a low consistency between postoperative test sessions but it does not explain the detection of cognitive dysfunction after major surgery.     

Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction in Older Patients with a History of Alcohol Abuse

Background: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) affects a significant number of patients and may have serious consequences for quality of life. Although POCD is most frequent after cardiac surgery, the prevalence of POCD after noncardiac surgery in older patients is also significant. The risk factors for POCD after noncardiac surgery include advanced age and preexisting cognitive impairment. Self-reported alcohol abuse is a risk factor for postoperative delirium, but its significance for long-term POCD has not been investigated. The goal of this study was to determine whether neurocognitive function is impaired after noncardiac surgery during general anesthesia in older patients with a history of alcohol abuse.

Methods: Subjects aged 55 yr and older with self-reported alcohol abuse (n = 28) and age-, sex-, education-matched nonalcoholic controls (n = 28) were tested using a neurocognitive battery before and 2 weeks after elective surgery (n = 28) or a corresponding time interval without surgery (n = 28). Verbal memory, visuospatial memory, and executive functions were assessed. A neurologic examination was performed to exclude subjects with potential cerebrovascular damage.

Results: Significant three-way interactions (analysis of variance) for Visual Immediate Recall, Visual Delayed Recall, Semantic Fluency, Phonemic Fluency, and the Color-Word Stroop Test implied that cognitive performance in the alcoholic group decreased after surgery more than it did in the other three groups.     

Apolipoprotein E Genotype and Cognitive Dysfunction after Noncardiac Surgery

Background: Apolipoprotein E is important in recovery after neuronal damage. The [epsilon]4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene has been shown as a risk factor for Alzheimer disease, poor outcome after cerebral injury, and accelerated cognitive decline with normal aging. The authors hypothesized that patients with the [epsilon]4 allele would have an increased risk of postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) after noncardiac surgery.

Methods: In a multicenter study, a total of 976 patients aged 40 yr and older undergoing noncardiac surgery were tested preoperatively and 1 week and 3 months after surgery with a neuropsychological test battery comprising seven subtests. POCD was defined as a decline in test performance of more than 2 SD from the expected. Apolipoprotein E genotypes were determined by blood sample analysis at a central laboratory. Multivariate logistic regression analysis with POCD as the dependent variable assessed presence of the [epsilon]4 allele (yes/no) and other possible risk factors.

Results: The [epsilon]4 allele was found in 272 patients. One week after surgery, the incidence of POCD was 11.7% in patients with the [epsilon]4 allele and 9.9% in patients without the [epsilon]4 allele (P = 0.41). Three months later, POCD was found in 10.3% of patients with the [epsilon]4 allele and in 8.4% of patients without the [epsilon]4 allele (P = 0.40). Multivariate logistic regression analysis did not identify the [epsilon]4 allele as a risk factor at 1 week (P = 0.33) or 3 months (P = 0.57).     

Postoperative kognitive Dysfunktion

The incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is often underestimated and not intuitively present by many anesthetists. POCD often occurs in the elderly but is also seen in younger patients. The incidence of POCD 1 week after non-cardiac surgery covers a span between 19–41% in patients older than 18 years. An increased POCD rate (10%) 3 months after surgery is only detected in patients older than 60 years. The occurrence of POCD is associated with an increased mortality rate, jet the etiology is mainly unknown despite enormous research efforts. The age of the patient is one of the main risk factors for the development of POCD. Data on how to avoid POCD are limited. However, the maintenance of homoeostasis is an important cornerstone of prophylaxis.     

MRI测定海马体积预测老年患者发生术后认知功能障碍的准确性

目的 评价术前MRI测定海马体积预测老年患者发生术后认知功能障碍(POCD)的准确性.方法 拟行胃肠道手术的患者41例,年龄≥65岁,分别于术前和术后4d采用韦氏成人记忆、智力量表中的敏感项目、联线和钉板测试进行神经心理学测试.术后4d借鉴国际术后认知功能障碍研究组织推荐的Z分法评价认知功能,根据是否发生POCD分为POCD组和非POCD组.术前采用MRI测定海马体积,海马体积与Z分间进行直线相关分析,分析海马体积对POED的预测价值.结果 36例老年患者完成本试验,其中13例患者发生了POCD,发生率为36%.POCD组海马体积(4.75 4±0.23)小于非POCD组(5.06±0.31)(P<0.01).海马体积与Z分间呈负相关(r=-0.324,P<0.05).以海马体积预测发生POCD的准确率为77.8%,灵敏度为92.3%,特异度为70.0%,约登指数为0.623.结论 术前采用MRI测定的海马体积可准确地预测老年患者是否发生POCD.     

Accuracy of Regional Cerebral Oxygen Saturation in Predicting Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction After Total Hip Arthroplasty : Regional Cerebral Oxygen Saturation Predicts POCD

To estimate the accuracy of regional cerebral oxygen saturation (rSO₂) in predicting postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) for patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty, 46 patients aged more than 50 years old were enrolled. We measured the patients’ cognitive function by using a battery of six neuropsychological tests before surgery and then 7 days after surgery again. rSO₂ was continuously monitored by near-infrared spectroscopy during surgery. POCD was present in 9 (19.6%) patients 1 week after surgery. Logistic regression analysis showed that increasing age [OR = 1.224, P = 0.035] and maximum percentage drop in rSO₂ (rSO_2%max) [OR = 1.618, P = 0.011] were significant risk factors for POCD. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of rSO_2%max was 0.833 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.615–1.051] at cutoff value of 11%. The specificity and sensitivity of rSO_2%max > 11% in predicting POCD were 77.8% and 86.5%, respectively. rSO_2%max more than 11% was a potential predictor for POCD.     

Does anaesthesia cause postoperative cognitive dysfunction? A randomised study of regional versus general anaesthesia in 438 elderly patients

BACKGROUND: Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is a common complication after cardiac and major non-cardiac surgery with general anaesthesia in the elderly. We hypothesized that the incidence of POCD would be less with regional anaesthesia rather than general. METHODS: We included patients aged over 60 years undergoing major non-cardiac surgery. After giving written informed consent, patients were randomly allocated to general or regional anaesthesia. Cognitive function was assessed using four neuropsychological tests undertaken preoperatively and at 7 days and 3 months postoperatively. POCD was defined as a combined Z score >1.96 or a Z score >1.96 in two or more test parameters. RESULTS: At 7 days, POCD was found in 37/188 patients (19.7%, [14.3-26.1%]) after general anaesthesia and in 22/176 (12.5%, [8.0-18.3%]) after regional anaesthesia, P = 0.06. After 3 months, POCD was present in 25/175 patients (14.3%, [9.5-20.4%]) after general anaesthesia vs. 23/165 (13.9%, [9.0-20.2%]) after regional anaesthesia, P = 0.93. The incidence of POCD after 1 week was significantly greater after general anaesthesia when we excluded patients who did not receive the allocated anaesthetic: 33/156 (21.2%[15.0-28.4%]) vs. 20/158 (12.7%[7.9-18.9%]) (P = 0.04). Mortality was significantly greater after general anaesthesia (4/217 vs. 0/211 (P < 0.05)). CONCLUSION: No significant difference was found in the incidence of cognitive dysfunction 3 months after either general or regional anaesthesia in elderly patients. Thus, there seems to be no causative relationship between general anaesthesia and long-term POCD. Regional anaesthesia may decrease mortality and the incidence of POCD early after surgery.     

Serum Phosphorylated Neurofilament Heavy Subunit-H,a Potential Predictive Biomarker for Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction in Elderly Subjects Undergoing Hip Joint Arthroplasty

BackgroundPostoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD), which refers to a cognitive impairment subsequent to surgical procedures, is a common complication in the elderly subjects. This study aimed to investigate potential risk factors for POCD in elderly subjects undergoing hip joint arthroplasty.MethodsConsecutive elderly osteoarthritis patients who were scheduled to undergo hip arthroplasty under epidural anesthesia were enrolled into this single-center, prospective observational study. Serum phosphorylated neurofilament heavy subunit-H (pNF-H) was measured by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. A level of >70.5 pg/mL was accepted as pNF-H positivity. Neuropsychological assessment at baseline (1 day before the surgery) and postoperative day 7 was conducted. POCD was defined according to the calculated Z scores. Risk factors for POCD were evaluated by univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.ResultsIn final, 287 patients were enrolled, and 55 had suffered POCD within postoperative 7 days with an incidence of 19.2%. The final multiple logistic regression analysis revealed a higher pNF-H positivity was the only independent risk factor for POCD (odds ratio: 2.03, 95% confidence interval: 1.21-3.29, P = .012).ConclusionsOur results revealed an increased preoperative serum pNF-H expression was an independent risk factor for POCD development in elderly subjects undergoing hip joint arthroplasty, suggesting the close association between anatomical damage in central nervous system and POCD.     

The influence of anesthetic techniques on postoperative cognitive function in elderly patients undergoing hip fracture surgery: General vs spinal anesthesia

BackgroundHip fracture is common and morbid in elderly patients. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is also very common in these subjects undergoing surgery with an incidence which exceeds 40% in some reports. To date, the evidence is ambiguous as to whether anesthetic technique may affect the patients’ outcome as far as postoperative cognitive function is concerned.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to compare the effect of general and subarachnoid (spinal) anesthesia on the development of POCD up to 30 days after surgery in elderly patients undergoing hip fracture surgery.Methods Subjects over 65 years with hip fracture undergoing surgery were recruited for this study. They were enrolled and randomized to receive either general anesthesia (GA group) or subarachnoid (spinal) anesthesia (S group). Cognitive function was assessed using a battery of neuropsychological tests undertaken preoperatively and at 30 days postoperatively. The incidence of delirium was examined during the same period and their functional status, in terms of activities of daily living was also recorded.ResultsA total of seventy patients, 33 men and 37 females, mean age of 76 years were analyzed. Thirty-three patients received general anesthesia (GA group) and 37 subarachnoid (spinal) anesthesia (S group). The two groups of patients were similar with respect to baseline characteristics, comorbidities and perioperative data. The results of neuropsychological testing showed that there were no significant differences between the groups in eight out of ten neurocognitive tests at baseline and 30 days after surgery. There was a statistically significant decline of the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale score in S group compared with group GA on the 30th postoperative day (p = 0.043). A significant decline was also present in Color-Word Task test in S group compared with group GA at baseline (p = 0.014) and 30 days postoperatively (p = 0.003). Postoperative delirium was present in four patients (12%) for the GA group, and in 10 patients (27%) for the group receiving subarachnoid anesthesia.ConclusionWe concluded that the choice of anesthesia modality does not appear to influence the emergence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients undergoing hip fracture surgery.