A model for antigen-induced T cell unresponsiveness based on autophosphorylative protein tyrosine kinase activity

Helper T cell signaling is initiated by the aggregation of TCRwith the induction of tyrosine kinase activity as one of theearliest consequences. Here, a theoretical model for antigen-inducedunresponsiveness is presented that relies on a cascade of tyrosinephosphorylation- dephoshorylation cycles. A mechanism is describedfor both desensitization in the presence of antigen and persistentlowering of cell responsiveness after stimulus removal. An importantcomponent of the model, leading to bistability, is the presenceof autophosphorylating protein tyrosine kinases in the earlysteps of TCR signaling. One of its predictions is that, followingstimulation, the net phosphorylative activity of these receptor-associatedtyrosine kinases will remain above background level after removalof the antigen. It is proposed that this residual tyrosine kinaseactivity is linked to a deficient signal transduction capacityof the TCR system that leads to a state of prolonged unresponsiveness.In addition, the present analysis defines the notion of a signalingthreshold for hyporesponsiveness induction, associated witha durable switch and amplification of the net tyrosine kinaseactivity. This approach emphasizes the role of tyrosine kinasesin the down-regulation of cellular competence.     

Stimulus-dependent triggering or inhibition of cytotoxicity in human cytotoxic T lymphocytes by activators of protein kinase C.

The influence of activators of protein kinase C (PKC) on the delivery of the lethal hit by human cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) clones was studied. In the absence of other signals, short-term incubation with two structurally unrelated activators of PKC, but not with a non-activating phorbolester, resulted in significant triggering of CTL, whereas overnight incubation with PKC activators led to reduction of cytotoxic activity. Furthermore, activation of PKC had an inhibitory effect on simultaneous triggering by anti-T3 monoclonal antibodies or by phytohaemagglutinin, but strongly enhanced the activating effect of anti-T11 antibodies. These results suggest that PKC is part of the cascade of signals transmitted within a CTL after triggering.     

血小板活化因子抑制T细胞蛋白激酶C的激活

目的：观察PAF对T细胞PKC激活的调节作用。方法：以CD3mAb(30ng/ml)或PMA（50ng/ml)/ionomycin(500ng/ml)活化T细胞，T细胞增生以3H胸腺嘧啶掺入法测定，IL－2生成用MTTI地测定，IL－2R（CD25）表达以流式细胞仪测定，PKC活性用Hauschildt所述方法测定。结果：PAF抑制由CD3mAb诱导的T－细胞增生，IL－2生成，CD25的表达和PKC的激活，虽然PAF对PMA／ionomycin诱导的T－细胞增生和CD25的表达也具有抑制作用，但是，对IL－2生成的抑制作用并不显著，结论：PAF除抑制PKC激活外，对PKC激活之前的信号传导过程亦有调节作用。     

A cascade of protein kinase C isozymes promotes cytoskeletal polarization in T cells

Polarization of the T cell microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) toward the antigen-presenting cell (APC) is driven by the accumulation of diacylglycerol (DAG) at the immunological synapse (IS). The mechanisms that couple DAG to the MTOC are not known. By single-cell photoactivation of the T cell antigen receptor (TCR), we found that three distinct isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC) were recruited by DAG to the IS in two steps. PKC-? and PKC-η accumulated first in a broad region of membrane, whereas PKC-θ arrived later in a smaller zone. Functional experiments indicated that PKC-θ was required for MTOC reorientation and that PKC-? and PKC-η operated redundantly to promote the recruitment of PKC-θ and subsequent polarization responses. Our results establish a previously uncharacterized role for PKC proteins in T cell polarity.     

Effect of activation of protein kinase C on CD45 isoform expression and CD45 protein tyrosine phosphatase activity in T cells

The T200/leukocyte common antigen (CD45) is a family of at least five large-molecular weight glycoproteins, which are differentially expressed on T cell subsets. The CD45 antigen consists of a variable heavily glycosylated exterior domain, a single membrane-spanning region, and a large cytoplasmic domain that has protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPase) activity. In this study, we examined the effects of activation of protein kinase C (PKC) on the phosphorylation and expression of CD45 isoforms and PTPase activity in human T cells. After activation of PKC by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), CD45RA expression rapidly increased within the first 24 h, whereas CD45R0 expression did not change within this time. However by 48 h, expression of CD45R0 also began to increase. Metabolic labeling showed that the rapid increment in CD45RA expression observed after PMA stimulation is primarily due to increased de novo synthesis of the 205-kDa and not the 220-kDa molecule. PMA treatment resulted in the phosphorylation of each CD45 isoform to a degree corresponding to its relative surface expression. Significantly, we found that the phosphorylation of CD45 by PKC activation down-regulated CD45 PTPase activity.     

Regulation by glutathione of interleukin-4 activity on cytotoxic T cells.

We have previously shown that cellular glutathione (GSH) regulates the T-cell proliferative activity of interleukin-2 (IL-2). Here, we examined whether and how GSH affects the activity of interleukin-4 (IL-4) on murine cytotoxic T cells. CT.4R, a T-cell line that is responsive to both IL-4 and IL-2, was used as a model. Although GSH alone had little effect on the thymidine incorporation of CT.4R cells, it enhanced the response of CT.4R to IL-4 and increased the level of thymidine incorporation up to more than 60-fold in a concentration-dependent manner. GSH affected the binding of IL-4 to cellular receptors. Scatchard plot analysis showed that GSH treatment did not change the dissociation constant significantly; however, it increased the receptor number from 1173 +/- 126 to 2112 +/- 492 molecules per cell. Internalization and degradation studies of IL-4 showed that the amount of IL-4 internalized and degraded in the GSH-treated cells was about twofold higher than those in the cells without GSH treatment. These results suggest that GSH regulates the binding, internalization, degradation and T-cell proliferative activity of IL-4; alteration of cellular GSH levels may thus affect the growth and replication of cytotoxic T cells through growth stimulating cytokines such as IL-2 and IL-4.     

Phospholipase C activation in the cytotoxic response of human natural killer cells requires protein-tyrosine kinase activity.

Treatment of highly purified natural killer (NK) cells with the protein-tyrosine kinase (PTK) inhibitors, genistein and herbimycin A, diminished their ability to lyse K562 target cells by as much as 100%. The ability of NK cells to bind to K562 cells was not affected by PTK inhibition. However, activation of phospholipase C (PLC) in response to K562 cell binding (as measured by inositol phosphate turnover) was decreased by as much as 75% when PTK activity was inhibited. Furthermore, there was an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of NK cell PLC gamma 2 after exposure to K562 target cells. These data indicate that a PTK is involved in the activation of NK PLC by tumour target cells in the cytotoxic response.     

Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase regulates PKCtheta activity in cytotoxic T cells

Protein kinase C (PKC) theta plays a crucial role in T cell activation. We, therefore, examined the regulation of PKCtheta activity in cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). We demonstrated that PMA did not stimulate PKCtheta activation and phospholipase C inhibition did not block anti-CD3-stimulated PKCtheta activation in a CTL clone. This suggests that diacylglycerol is neither sufficient nor required for PKCtheta activation. Furthermore, PKCtheta was only activated in a CTL clone stimulated with plate-bound anti-CD3 but not soluble anti-CD3. However, PMA or cross-linked anti-CD3 stimulated phosphorylation of PKCtheta as measured by a migratory shift, suggesting that phosphorylation was not sufficient for activity. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity was required for anti-CD3, but not PMA, stimulated phosphorylation and for immobilized anti-CD3-triggered PKCtheta activity. A substantial fraction of PKCtheta was constitutively membrane associated and PMA or CD3 stimulation did not significantly increase membrane association. Our data indicate that phosphorylation of PKCtheta is not a suitable surrogate measurement for PKCtheta activity and that additional, yet to be defined steps, are required for the regulation of PKCtheta enzymatic activity in CTL.     

慢性粒细胞性白血病细胞诱导分化的树突状细胞及其抗原提呈作用的研究

观察细胞因子联合培养诱生的慢性粒细胞性白血病(CML)细胞白血病性树突状细胞(DC)的细胞特性及抗原提呈作用。选择CML患者的骨髓细胞和CML性细胞株K562细胞,应用GM-CSF+IL-4+TNF-α联合培养后进行细胞表型和特异性激活淋巴细胞作用的检测。CML-DC和K562-DC具有DC的形态特征和超微结构,表达CD1a、CD80和CD86等DC相关抗原,并可激活淋巴细胞产生增殖反应,并产生针对白血病细胞的特异性细胞毒效应,同时DC可不同程度地分泌IL-12并协助淋巴细胞产生IFN-γ。CML患者的细胞和K562细胞在细胞因子的诱导下,可分化为具有DC表型特性和特异性激活T细胞的白血病性抗原提呈细胞,使白血病DC瘤苗的应用成为可能。     

Partial characterization of protein kinase C and inhibitor activity of protein kinase C in rabbit peritoneal neutrophils

Analysis of the cytosol fraction containing protein kinase C activity from rabbit peritoneal neutrophils by DEAE-cellulose chromatography identified protein kinase C activity in the fractions eluted with 0.08 M-0.14 M NaCl and protein kinase C inhibitor activity in the fraction eluted with 0.16 M-0.5 M NaCl. On further analysis by Sephadex G-150 gel filtration, one peak of protein kinase C and two peaks of inhibitor activity were identified. The peak of protein kinase C and two peaks of inhibitor activity were identified. The peak of protein kinase C activity eluted at Ve/Vo 1.6 corresponding to a Stokes radius of 35 A. The first peak of the inhibitor activity eluted at Ve/Vo 1.4 and the second peak of the inhibitor activity eluted at Ve/Vo 2.5. The peak of phosphoprotein phosphatase activity does not coincide with the peaks of inhibitor activity of protein kinase C.     

Differential modulation of unapposed connexin 43 hemichannel electrical conductance by protein kinase C isoforms

Opening of unapposed connexin 43 hemichannels (Cx43Hc) in the plasma membrane results in altered ionic homeostasis leading to cell damage. Although it is generally acknowledged that Cx43Hc function is regulated by protein kinase C (PKC), information regarding the functional role of PKC in the modulation of Cx43Hc electrical conductance is lacking. In this work, we used the patch-clamp technique to study the effect of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), a general PKC activator, on the electrical conductance of exogenous Cx43Hc expressed in tsA201 cells. Subsequently, a matrix of synthetic PKC isoform-specific inhibitor peptides was used to dissect the functional role of individual PKC isoforms in Cx43Hc regulation. Superfusion with 10 nM PMA abolished Cx43Hc currents by 74%, an effect that was prevented by pretreatment with a general PKC inhibitor, GF109203X. It is interesting to note that intracellular diffusion of ɛV_1–2 (0.1 μM), an ɛPKC-specific inhibitor peptide, completely antagonized PMA-induced current inhibition. Cell dialysis with either β_II- or δPKC inhibitor peptides partially decreased PMA effect. Neither α- nor β_IPKC inhibition altered PMA-induced current reduction. This study shows for the first time that Cx43Hc electrical conductance is inhibited after PKC activation. Moreover, this inhibition is predominantly mediated by the “novel” ɛPKC isoform, whereas partial inhibition may be provided by the “conventional” β_IIPKC as well as the “novel” δPKC isoforms.     

蛋白激酶C在调节血管内皮细胞通透性中的作用

蛋白激酶C(protein kinase C,PKC)是一种钙或/和磷脂依赖性蛋白磷酸化酶,广泛存在于人体的各种组织细胞中.它能被细胞外生物活性因素(生长因素、神经递质、细胞因子等)激活,完成靶细胞蛋白的磷酸化,通过蛋白磷酸化后生物活性的改变而完成细胞外源性信号的应答,构成细胞内重要的信号转导系统.许多实验证明蛋白激酶C的激活在血管内皮细胞屏障功能和血管通透性的变化调节中起着重要的作用.本文将就PKC在血管通透性变化中的效应、激活方式、信号的通路以及作用底物等方面做一综述.     

蛋白激酶C在调节血管内皮细胞通透性中的作用

蛋白激酶Ｃ(ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎｋｉｎａｓｅＣ ,ＰＫＣ)是一种钙或 /通过激活ＰＫＣ来增加内皮细胞的通透性 ,同时伴有细胞间连接缝隙增宽[2 ] 。而ＰＫＣ活性的抑制剂如隙形成 ,导致通透性的升高[9] 。2　参与调节内皮细胞通透功能的ＰＫＣ亚型和激活通路 ,引起蛋白质如细胞骨架蛋白的磷酸化 ,最终导ＤＡＧ再分别激活以Ｃａ2 +和ＰＫＣ为代表的两条信号ＰＫＣ活化和Ｃａ2 +升高 ;再由Ｃａ2 +与钙调蛋白结合形成Ｃａ2 +-ＣａＭ ,激活ＭＬＣＫ ;最后由ＭＬＣＫ介导ＭＬＣ蛋白激酶C在调节血管内皮细胞通透性中的作用@杨滔$第一军医大学病理生理…     

Partial agonism and independent modulation of T cell receptor and CD8 in hapten-specific cytotoxic T cells

We recently demonstrated antagonism for hapten-reactive T cells by altered hapten ligands. Here we investigated partial peptide- or hapten-agonism and effects of antigen stimulation on the expression of TCR and the CD8 coreceptor using a set of DNP- or TNP-peptide-induced, H-2K^b -restricted mouse CTL clones. Various K^b -binding TNP- and DNP-peptides acted as partial agonists, cross-reactively stimulating individual clones for cytotoxicity and IFN-γ secretion, but failing to induce proliferation or TNF-α production. Full agonism, i.e. activation of all possible functions, was usually restricted to those hapten-peptide combinations used for the induction of the respective clones. Our data imply distinctive kinetic optima for TCR antigen contacts in the induction of the various T cell effector functions. Down-regulation of TCR was efficiently induced by full, but with one exception not by partial, agonists, indicating the independence of cytotoxicity or IFN-γ secretion from TCR modulation. On the other hand, a reduction of TCR expression induced by full agonists was usually not accompanied by synchronous down-modulation of CD8 as reported by others for human T cells. In fact, three of four full agonists and all partial agonists markedly enhanced rather than reduced the expression of CD8. Increased CD8 surface levels enhanced cytolytic potential and increased cross-reactivity patterns of individual clones. Brefeldin A blocked this CD8 induction by partial agonists, and in the case of full agonists resulted in a parallel reduction of both, TCR and CD8. Thus, antigenic stimulation of mouse T cells initially down-modulates CD8 together with TCR, but the loss of coreceptor is over-compensated by a signal for increased CD8 export.     

Prevention of neuronal apoptosis by phorbol ester-induced activation of protein kinase C: blockade of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase

Consistent with previous studies on cell lines and non-neuronal cells, specific inhibitors of protein kinase C induced mouse primary cultured neocortical neurons to undergo apoptosis. To examine the complementary hypothesis that activating protein kinase C would attenuate neuronal apoptosis, the cultures were exposed for 1 h to phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate, which activated protein kinase C as evidenced by downstream enhancement of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Exposure to phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate, or another active phorbol ester, phorbol-12,13-didecanoate, but not to the inactive ester, 4alpha-phorbol-12,13-didecanoate, markedly attenuated neuronal apoptosis induced by serum deprivation. Phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate also attenuated neuronal apoptosis induced by exposure to beta-amyloid peptide 1-42, or oxygen-glucose deprivation in the presence of glutamate receptor antagonists. The neuroprotective effects of phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate were blocked by brief (non-toxic) concurrent exposure to the specific protein kinase C inhibitors, but not by a specific mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 inhibitor. Phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate blocked the induction of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity and specific inhibition of this kinase by SB 203580 attenuated serum deprivation-induced apoptosis. c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 activity was high at rest and not modified by phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate treatment. These data strengthen the idea that protein kinase C is a key modulator of several forms of central neuronal apoptosis, in part acting through inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase regulated pathways.     

Changes in protein kinase C activity during histamine release from activated rat mast cells

Rat mast cells were challenged with compound 48/80 or calcium ionophore A23187, and protein kinase C activity in the cell pellets and the amount of histamine release into the supernatant were measured. After stopping the reaction, rat mast cells were lysed in a medium which prevents alterations in phosphorylation and dephosphorylation during sample processing. Histamine was significantly released from compound 48/80-stimulated mast cells at 30 s after the stimulation. In parallel with this, protein kinase C activity in the cell pellets increased at 30 s and 1 min and returned to basal value 3 min after the stimulation. When mast cells were incubated with various concentrations of 48/80 for 30 s, the amount of histamine release and protein kinase C activity increased dependently on the concentration of 48/80. Significant histamine release from A23187-stimulated mast cells was found at 1 min after the stimulation. Also protein kinase C activity in the cell pellets increased at 1 min and returned to basal value 5 min after the stimulation. A reduction of cytosolic protein kinase C activity was observed upon 48/80 treatment in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Further, staurosporine, a potent inhibitor of protein kinase C, inhibited 48/80-induced histamine release in parallel with the inhibition of protein kinase C activity. These findings suggest that transient increase of protein kinase C activity may be involved in the mast cell activation process.