Neuroprotection by nitric oxide against hydroxyl radical-induced nigral neurotoxicity

We investigated the effects of nitric oxide on an in vitro and in vivo generation of hydroxyl radicals, and in vivo neurotoxicity caused by intranigral infusion of ferrous citrate in rats. The formation of hydroxyl radicals in vitro, without exogenous hydrogen peroxide, was dose-dependent. Some nitric oxide donors (e.g. sodium nitroprusside) stimulated, while others (nitroglycerin, diethylamine/nitric oxide, nitric oxide in Ringer's solution) suppressed hydroxyl radical generation in vitro. A significant increase in extra-cellular hydroxyl radicals was detected in a brain microdialysis study. Intranigral infusion of ferrous citrate caused long-lasting lipid peroxidation and dopamine depletion in the ipsilateral nigral region and striatum, respectively. Sub-acute dopamine depletion in the striatum was positively correlated with acute lipid peroxidation in substantia nigra. Intranigral administration of nitric oxide did not affect striatal dopamine. Interestingly, nitric oxide in Ringer's protected nigral neurones against the oxidative injury. The results demonstrate that a regional increase in the levels of iron can result in hydroxyl radical generation and lipid peroxidation leading to neurotoxicity. It also demonstrates that exogenous nitric oxide can act as hydroxyl radical scavenger and protect neurones from oxidative injury.     

Experimental Modeling of Functional Deficiency of the Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System in Mice

The dopaminergic nigrostriatal system of the brain is a key component in controlling motor behavior. The bodies of dopaminergic neurons are located in the compact zone of the substantia nigra and their axons, forming the nigrostriatal tract, project to the striatum. The aim of the present work was to develop an experimental model of functional deficiency of the dopaminergic neurons of the nigrostriatal system with no impairment to motor behavior, i.e., the presymptomatic stage of parkinsonism. The model was created in mice by administration of single subcutaneous injections of low doses (12 mg/kg) of 1-methyl- 4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), which is converted to MPP⁺ in the brain, this being a neurotoxin for dopaminergic neurons. These experiments showed that 14 days after administration of MPTP the animals a) lacked any impairment to motor behavior; b) had no decrease in the dopamine level or any dopamine neuron degeneration in the substantia nigra; c) showed significant reductions in dopamine levels in the striatum due to degeneration of half of its dopaminergic fibers. The absence of changes in motor behavior in the presence of significant changes in dopamine metabolism and structural damage to dopaminergic axons in the striatum provides evidence for the activation of compensatory mechanisms in the brain. Thus, we have developed an experimental model of the presymptomatic stage of parkinsonism, which is characterized by degeneration of the axons of dopaminergic neurons in the striatum with no changes in the bodies of these neurons in the substantia nigra; this model will be used for further studies of compensatory mechanisms.     

Differential nicotinic receptor expression in monkey basal ganglia: effects of nigrostriatal damage

Our previous work showed that there were marked declines in (125)I-alpha-conotoxin MII labeled nicotinic receptors in monkey basal ganglia after nigrostriatal damage, findings that suggest alpha3/alpha6 containing nicotinic receptors sites may be of relevance to Parkinson's disease. We now investigate whether there are differential changes in the distribution pattern of nicotinic receptor subtypes in the basal ganglia in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-lesioned animals compared to controls to better understand the changes occurring with nigrostriatal damage. To approach this we used (125)I-alpha-conotoxin MII, a marker for alpha3/alpha6 nicotinic receptors, and (125)I-epibatidine, a ligand that labels multiple nicotinic subtypes.The results demonstrate that there were medial to lateral gradients in nicotinic receptor distribution in control striatum, as well as ventromedial to dorsolateral gradients in the substantia nigra, which resembled those of the dopamine transporter in these same brain regions. Treatment with MPTP, a neurotoxin that selectively destroys dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons, led to a relatively uniform decrease in nicotinic receptor sites in the striatum, but a differential effect in the substantia nigra with significantly greater declines in the ventrolateral portion. Competition analysis in the striatum showed that alpha-conotoxin MII sensitive sites were primarily affected after lesioning, whereas multiple nicotinic receptor populations were decreased in the substantia nigra.From these data we suggest that in the striatum alpha3/alpha6 nicotinic receptors are primarily localized on dopaminergic nerve terminals, while multiple nicotinic receptor subtypes are present on dopaminergic cell bodies in the substantia nigra. Thus, if activation of striatal nicotinic receptors is key in the regulation of basal ganglia function, alpha3/alpha6-directed nicotinic receptor ligands may be more relevant for Parkinson's disease therapy. However, nicotinic receptor ligands with a broader specificity may be more important if receptors in the substantia nigra play a dominant role in controlling nigrostriatal activity.     

Immunohistochemical and neurochemical studies on nigral and striatal functions in the circling (ci) rat, a genetic animal model with spontaneous rotational behavior

Asymmetrical spontaneous turning behavior or circling phenomena are often related to components of the dopaminergic system, particularly to an imbalance of nigrostriatal function. When a rotational preference is observed, it is typically in a direction away from the brain hemisphere with higher striatal dopaminergic transmission. We have recently described a rat mutant (ci) with spontaneous circling behavior and other signs of functional brain asymmetry. Neurochemical determinations showed that mutants of both genders have significantly lower concentrations of dopamine and dopamine metabolites in the striatum ipsilateral to the preferred direction of rotation. In the present study, we used immunohistochemical, neurochemical, and autoradiographic techniques to characterize the dopaminergic abnormalities of the ci rat mutant in more detail. Age-matched non-affected controls of the same strain were used for comparison. Immunohistochemical labeling of dopaminergic neurons and fibers in substantia nigra pars compacta, ventral tegmental area, and striatum did not indicate any significant neurodegeneration or asymmetry that could explain the lateralization in dopamine levels in striatum of ci rats. Neurochemical determinations substantiated that ci rats of both genders have a significant imbalance in striatal dopamine metabolism, but a similar significant lateralization was also seen in non-affected female controls. Comparison of dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline and several monoamine metabolite levels in substantia nigra, striatum, nucleus accumbens and frontal cortex of ci rats and controls did not disclose any marked difference between affected and non-affected animals which was consistently found in both genders. Quantitative autoradiographic determination of binding densities of dopamine transporter and D1 and D2 receptors in several parts of the striatum and substantia nigra indicated that ci rats have a significantly higher binding density of dopamine transporter and receptors than controls. Taken together, ci mutant rats of both genders exhibit an asymmetry in striatal dopamine and metabolite levels and an enhanced dopamine transporter and receptor binding, but the link of these differences in dopaminergic parameters with the rotational behavior of the animals is not clear yet. The lack of any significant dopaminergic cell loss in the substantia nigra and the locomotor hyperactivity observed in the mutants clearly suggest that the ci rat is not suited as a model of Parkinsonism but rather constitutes a model of a hyperkinetic motor syndrome.     

Nigrostriatal catecholamine metabolism in guinea pigs is altered by purine enzyme inhibition

The effect of purine enzyme inhibition on catecholamine metabolism was investigated in guinea pigs. Catecholamine levels were measured in the nigrostriatal brain structures of male guinea pigs following treat- ment with allopurinol (a xanthine oxidase inhibitor; 250 mg/kg i.p.) or allantoxanimide (a uricase inhibitor; 200 mg/kg i.p.) once a day for 4 days. Tissue was analyzed from the striatum and the substantia nigra. Norepinephrine, dopamine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), ascorbic acid, and uric acid were quantified with electrochemical and ultraviolet detection following separation by liquid chromatography. Allopurinol had no effect on nigrostriatal dopamine levels but decreased DOPAC levels (P<0.05) in the striatum. Allantoxanimide increased norepinephrine levels and decreased DOPAC levels in the striatum (P<0.05). Allopurinol decreased uric acid levels in the striatum and substantia nigra (P<0.05). Allantoxanimide increased uric acid levels in the striatum and the substantia nigra (P<0.05). These results indicate that alterations in purinergic enzyme activity can influence catecholamine metabolism within the nigrostriatal system of the guinea pig. Received: 11 May 1998 / Accepted: 15 March 1999     

Striatal substance P cell clusters coincide with the high density terminal zones of the discontinuous nigrostriatal dopaminergic projection system in the cat: a study by combined immunohistochemistry and autoradiographic axon-tracing

A portion of the nigrostriatal projection that originates from presumably dopaminergic neurons in the caudal pars compacta of the substantia nigra and the suprajacent pars dorsalis (retrorubral area), was shown by [3H]amino acid autoradiographic tracing to distribute nonhomogeneously in the head of the caudate nucleus, such that zones of high density termination are in register with the archipelago of substance P cell clusters revealed immunohistochemically in the same and adjacent tissue sections of the cat's brain. Axons from this same portion of the substantia nigra distribute densely at caudal levels of the putamen where again substance P-immunoreactive striatal cells are numerous. In nearby tissue sections from the same cases, tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactivity suggested only subtle variations in the density of the catecholamine axon network within the striatum. Thus, whereas dopamine axons are distributed densely throughout the striatum, those originating from cells in the caudal pars compacta et dorsalis of the substantia nigra and ending in the head of the caudate nucleus appear to terminate preferentially within the substance P cell clusters. These data suggest that the striatal substance P cells, which send their axons selectively to the entopeduncular nucleus and substantia nigra, but much less so the globus pallidus, are a major target of nigrostriatal dopamine transmission. This result is discussed with respect to the anatomical, neurochemical and functional organization of the striatifugal projection system.     

Midbrain muscarinic receptors modulate morphine-induced accumbal and striatal dopamine efflux in the rat

Midbrain dopamine neurons are critical in mediating the rewarding effects of opiates in dependent rats, as well as modulating some manifestations of opiate withdrawal. Morphine is known to excite dopamine neurons and thereby facilitate forebrain dopamine transmission through inhibition of GABA neurons. Cholinergic neurons in the mesopontine laterodorsal and pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei provide the principal source of excitatory cholinergic input to ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra pars compacta dopamine-containing neurons, via actions on midbrain muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The present study hypothesized that a reduction in tonic cholinergic input via blockade of midbrain muscarinic receptors would reduce the pharmacological effects of morphine on forebrain dopamine release. Using in vivo chronoamperometry, alterations in morphine-evoked dopamine efflux were monitored at stearate-graphite paste electrodes implanted unilaterally in the nucleus accumbens and striatum of urethane (1.5 g/kg) anesthetized rats, following the pharmacological inhibition of ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra pars compacta muscarinic receptors. The facilitatory effects of morphine (2.0 mg/kg, i.v.) on accumbens and striatal dopamine efflux were markedly reduced by prior infusion of the non-selective muscarinic receptor antagonist scopolamine (200 microg/microl) into the ventral tegmental area or substantia nigra pars compacta, respectively. These findings demonstrate that decreased activation of midbrain muscarinic receptors attenuates the excitatory effects of morphine on mesoaccumbens and nigrostriatal dopaminergic transmission.     

Susceptibility of ascending dopamine projections to 6-hydroxydopamine in rats: effect of hypothermia

The aims of this study were to determine (1) whether mesolimbic and nigrostriatal DA cell bodies degenerate to different extents after 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) is administered into their respective terminal fields and (2) whether hypothermia, associated with sodium pentobarbital anesthesia, protects DA neurons from the toxic effects of 6-OHDA. To address these questions, 6-OHDA or vehicle was infused into either the ventral or dorsal striatum or into the medial forebrain bundle, under conditions of brain normothermia or hypothermia. Two weeks post-surgery, tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cell bodies were counted in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra. In addition, autoradiographic labeling of tyrosine hydroxylase protein and dopamine transporter was quantified in dopamine terminal fields and cell body areas. Overall, DA cell bodies in the VTA were substantially less susceptible than those in the substantia nigra to depletion of dopaminergic markers. Hypothermia provided two types of neuroprotection. The first occurred when 6-OHDA was administered into the dorsal striatum, and was associated with a 30-50% increase in residual dopaminergic markers in the lateral portion of the VTA. The second neuroprotective effect of hypothermia occurred when 6-OHDA was given into the medial forebrain bundle. This was associated with a 200-300% increase in residual dopaminergic markers in the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal terminal fields; no significant protection occurred in the cell body regions.Collectively, these findings show that (1) the dopaminergic somata in the substantia nigra are more susceptible than those in the VTA to 6-OHDA-induced denervation, and (2) hypothermia can provide anatomically selective neuroprotection within the substantia nigra-VTA cell population. The continued survival of mesolimbic dopamine cell bodies after a 6-OHDA lesion may have functional implications relating to drugs of abuse, as somatodendritic release of dopamine in the VTA has been shown to play a role in the effectiveness of cocaine reward.     

Experimental hemiparkinsonism in the rat following chronic unilateral infusion of MPP+ into the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway--II. Differential localization of dopamine and cholecystokinin receptors

The autoradiographical localization of dopamine D1, D2 and cholecystokinin receptors has been investigated in rat brain 6 months following unilateral infusion of 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridinium ion (MPP+) (10 micrograms/day for 7 days) into the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway. Treatment with 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridinium ion produced a marked depletion of dopamine cell bodies in the substantia nigra together with greater than 95% loss of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity in the striatum. Measurement of specific [3H]spiperone binding to D2 receptors indicated a 38% increase (P less than 0.01) in the maximal binding capacity of [3H]spiperone to striatal membrane homogenates and a 13% increase (P less than 0.05) in specific [3H]spiperone binding to striatal tissue sections, verifying striatal D2 receptor denervation supersensitivity. In contrast, MPP+ lesion of the nigrostriatal tract had no effect on the autoradiographical localization of striatal D1 or cholecystokinin receptors. In addition, there was a 38% loss (P less than 0.05) of D2 receptor binding sites in the substantia nigra pars compacta, whilst D1 receptors remained unchanged. Similar changes in dopamine and cholecystokinin receptor number were found following 6-hydroxydopamine lesion of the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway. These results provide further evidence that 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridinium ion treatment in rats produces extensive destruction of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal tract and supports the differential anatomical localization of striatal and nigral D1, D2 and cholecystokinin receptors.     

Endogenous dopamine modifies electroresponsiveness of pars compacta cells in the guinea pig substantia nigra in vitro

Summary In the nigrostriatal pathway, dopamine is released not only from striatal nerve terminals, but also locally from the dendrites of nigrostriatal neurones within the substantia nigra itself. Exogenous dopamine is known to inhibit the firing of these neurones when applied directly to the substantia nigra in micromolar concentrations: but the amounts used are probably much higher than the endogenous concentration of the transmitter. Moreover, the direct, local blockade of nigral dopamine autoreceptors has not been reported to affect the firing rates of these neurones. The electrophysiological effects of endogenous dopamine were therefore examined using intracellular recordings from the substantia nigra in vitro. When slices of the midbrain were pharmacologically depleted of endogenous dopamine, selective membrane properties of nigrostriatal neurones were altered in a manner consistent with the effects of the exogenous transmitter. Similar changes were observed in control slices on exposure to the dopamine antagonist haloperidol. It is concluded that endogenous dopamine normally exerts a tonic influence on the electrical properties of nigrostriatal neurones.     

Emotional, cognitive and neurochemical alterations in a premotor stage model of Parkinson's disease

In addition to classic motor symptoms, Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by cognitive and emotional deficits, which have been demonstrated to precede motor impairments. The present study addresses the question of whether a partial degeneration of dopaminergic neurons using 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in rats is able to induce premotor behavioral signs. The time-course of nigrostriatal damage was evaluated by tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry and the levels of dopamine, noradrenaline, and 5-HT in various brain regions were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Behavioral tests that assessed a variety of psychological functions, including locomotor activity, emotional reactivity and depression, anxiety and memory were conducted on 6-OHDA lesioned rats. Bilateral infusion of 6-OHDA in the striatum of rats caused early (1 week) damage of dopaminergic terminals in striatum and in cell bodies in substantia nigra pars compacta. The nigrostriatal lesion was accompanied by early loss of dopamine in the striatum, which remained stable through a 3-week period of observation. In addition, a late (3 weeks) loss of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex, but not in the hippocampus, was seen. Additional noradrenergic and serotonergic alterations were observed after 6-OHDA administration. The results indicated that 6-OHDA lesioned rats show decreased sucrose consumption and an increased immobility time in the forced swimming test, an anhedonic-depressive-like effect. In addition, an anxiogenic-like activity in the elevated plus maze test and cognitive impairments were observed on the cued version of the Morris water maze and social recognition tests. These findings suggest that partial striatal dopaminergic degeneration and parallel dopaminergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic alterations in striatum and prefrontal cortex may have caused the emotional and cognitive deficits observed in this rat model of early phase PD.     

Oxidative damage in substantia nigra and striatum of rats chronically exposed to ozone

The purpose of this work was to study if chronic low-dose ozone exposure could per se induce oxidative damage to neurons of striatum and substantia nigra. Thirty male Wistar rats were divided into three groups--Group 1: exposed to an air stream free of ozone; Group 2: exposed for 15 days to ozone; Group 3: exposed for 30 days to ozone. Ozone exposure was carried out daily for 4 h at a 0.25 ppm dose. Each group was then tested for (1) motor activity, (2) quantification of lipid peroxidation levels, (3) Klüver-Barrera staining, and (4) immunohistochemistry for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine and adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kD (DARPP-32), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), to study neuronal alterations in striatum and substantia nigra. Results indicate that ozone exposure causes a significant decrease in motor activity. Ozone produced lipid peroxidation, morphological alterations, loss of fibers and cell death of the dopaminergic neurons. The DARPP-32, iNOS and SOD expression increased with repetitive ozone exposure. These alterations suggest that ozone causes oxidative stress which induces oxidative damage to substantia nigra and striatum of the rat.     

Habenular lesion attenuates methamphetamine-induced inhibition of dopamine neuronal activity in the substantia nigra pars compacta of rats

The relation between the habenula and central dopaminergic system was investigated by examining the inhibitory effects of methamphetamine on the firing rate of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra of habenular lesioned and unlesioned rats. Electrolytic lesions of the habenula attenuated the methamphetamine-induced inhibition of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra. This, along with other findings, indicates possibly that the habenula is involved in a feedback pathway from the striatum to the substantia nigra and regulates the activity of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra.     

Release of acetylcholinesterase in the rat nigrostriatal pathway: relation to receptor activation and firing rate

Acetylcholinesterase is released from both axon terminals and dendrites of nigrostriatal neurons. The relationship of this phenomenon to: (1) activation of receptors, and (2) firing rate, has been examined. In the first series of experiments, apomorphine or acetylcholine were infused into substantiae nigrae of urethane anaesthetized rats, via push-pull cannulae. In the ipsilateral striatum, the release of acetylcholinesterase was modified in a fashion reminiscent of the changes in firing rate induced by these drugs in nigrostriatal cells. Thus, application of acetylcholine into the substantia nigra induced an increase, while apomorphine induced a decrease in the release of acetylcholinesterase from the striatum. However, in the substantia nigra, the release of acetylcholinesterase did not follow this pattern: acetylcholine reduced local release, while apomorphine caused no change. In the second part of this study we studied the relationship between firing rate of nigrostriatal cells and the release of acetylcholinesterase. Two compounds known to block neuronal impulse flow were infused into the substantia nigra. These drugs were tetrodotoxin (a Na+ channel blocker), or gamma-hydroxybutyrate (a drug which blocks impulse flow specifically in dopaminergic cells). Both compounds reduced the release of acetylcholinesterase in the ipsilateral striatum. However, locally in the substantia nigra there was no decrease in release of the enzyme. In fact, following administration of gamma-hydroxybutyrate, there was a large Ca2+ dependent increase in release of acetylcholinesterase in the substantia nigra. These results suggest that release of acetylcholinesterase in the striatum may be linked to the discharge frequency of nigrostriatal neurons. On the other hand, release of acetylcholinesterase from the substantia nigra, which probably occurs from dendrites, is independent of Na+ mediated action potentials. This release may instead be associated with specific dendritic Ca2+ conductances.     

帕金森病小鼠模型黑质纹状体通路的形态学改变

目的 观察帕金森病小鼠模型黑质纹状体通路随病程进展而发生的形态学变化,从新的视角探讨帕金森病的病理生理机制。方法 正常C57小鼠36只,随机分为生理盐水组和1-甲基-4-苯基-1,2,3,6-四氢吡啶（MPTP）组,每组18只,于注射后第7、14、21、25、28、35天取材,利用免疫组织化学、免疫荧光技术和激光扫描共焦显微镜观察黑质多巴胺能神经元的数量、在纹状体内投射的神经纤维密度及其在纹状体直接通路和间接通路神经元（D1R/D2R阳性神经元）上的分布比例。结果 注射MPTP后,黑质多巴胺能神经元减少40%～50%;纹状体内多巴胺能神经纤维数量呈现先减少后增加的过程：第21天最少,仅为正常的20%;第35天最高,达到正常的45%;多巴胺能神经纤维在纹状体D1R/D2R阳性神经元上的分布比例也有先低后高的表现：第21天最低,第35天最高,与生理盐水组相比差异有显著性。结论 MPTP帕金森病模型小鼠的黑质纹状体通路呈现多巴胺能神经纤维再生现象,再生的多巴胺能神经纤维更多地分布于其直接通路的神经元上。     

Striatal nitric oxide signaling regulates the neuronal activity of midbrain dopamine neurons in vivo

A major component of the cortical regulation of the nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) system is known to occur via activation of striatal efferent systems projecting to the substantia nigra. The potential intermediary role of striatal nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-containing interneurons in modulating the efferent regulation of DA neuron activity was examined using single-unit recordings of DA neurons performed concurrently with striatal microdialysis in anesthetized rats. The response of DA neurons recorded in the substantia nigra to intrastriatal artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) or drug infusion was examined in terms of mean firing rate, percent of spikes fired in bursts, cells/track, and response to electrical stimulation of the orbital prefrontal cortex (oPFC) and striatum. Intrastriatal infusion of NOS substrate concurrently with intermittent periods of striatal and cortical stimulation increased the mean DA cell population firing rate as compared with ACSF controls. This effect was reproduced via intrastriatal infusion of a NO generator. Infusion of either a NOS inhibitor or NO chelator via reverse microdialysis did not affect basal firing rate but increased the percentage of DA neurons responding to striatal stimulation with an initial inhibition followed by a rebound excitation (IE response) from 40 to 74%. NO scavenger infusion also markedly decreased the stimulation intensity required to elicit an IE response to electrical stimulation of the striatum. In single neurons in which the effects of electrical stimulation were observed before and after drug delivery, NO antagonist infusion was observed to decrease the onset latency and extend the duration of the initial inhibitory phase induced by either oPFC or striatal stimulation. This is the first report showing that striatal NO tone regulates the basal activity and responsiveness of DA neurons to cortical and striatal inputs. These studies also indicate that striatal NO signaling may play an important role in the integration of information transmitted to basal ganglia output centers via corticostriatal and striatal efferent pathways.     

Neurocircuitries of the basal ganglia studied in organotypic cultures: focus on tyrosine hydroxylase, nitric oxide synthase and neuropeptide immunocytochemistry

The nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems of the rat were reconstructed using an organotypic culture model, whereby neonatal brain tissue was grown in vitro for approximately one month. The nigrostriatal system comprised of tissue from the substantia nigra, the dorsal striatum and the frontoparietal cortex, while the mesolimbic system included the ventral tegmental area, ventral striatum (including the fundus striati, accumbens nucleus, olfactory tubercle, lateral septum, ventral pallidum and piriform cortex) and cingulate cortex. These regions were also cultured alone or in pairs. The cultures were monitored in vitro, and after one month fixed in a formalin-picric acid solution, and processed for immunohistochemistry using antibodies raised against tyrosine hydroxylase, nitric oxide synthase, preprocholecystokinin, glutamate decarboxylase, neuropeptide Y, dopamine- and cyclic AMP-regulated phosphoprotein-32 and glial fibrillary acidic protein. The tissue survived in single, double or triple cultures, although differences were found depending upon the source and combination of cultured region. Neurons had localization and shape as in vivo. Local networks were especially prominent in the mesencephalon, where both tyrosine hydroxylase-positive axons spread from the "substantia nigra" to the rest of the tissue, and where nitric oxide synthase-positive networks also surrounded tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons. Glutamate decarboxylase-positive nerve terminals formed dense networks around tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons. In the striatum, nitric oxide synthase and dopamine- and cyclic AMP-regulated phosphoprotein-32 neurons were surrounded by tyrosine hydroxylase-positive nerve terminals. The nigral and ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons projected to striatal and cortical structures, but the projection from the ventral tegmental area to the cingulate cortex was more prominent. With regard to co-existence, preprochole-cystokinin-like immunoreactivities was found in many tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons and neuropeptide Y- and nitric oxide synthase-like immunoreactivity co-existed in striatal and cortical tissues. In general terms, the chemical neuroanatomy in the cultures was similar to that described earlier in vivo. Nitric oxide synthase staining was particularly intense. Taken together, the organotypic model captures many of the morphological and neurochemical features seen in vivo, providing a valuable model for studying neurocircuitries of the brain in detail, where 'normal' and 'pathological' conditions can be simulated.     

MPTP对小鼠不同脑区神经递质代谢酶基因表达的影响

1-甲基 -4 -苯基 -1,2 ,3 ,6-四氢吡啶 (MPTP)能够诱发黑质纹状体系统多巴胺能神经元损伤并产生与帕金森病类似的症状。本实验通过 MPTP注射诱导 C5 7BL小鼠神经元损伤 ,利用逆转录 PCR方法检测酪氨酸羟化酶 (TH)、单胺氧化酶 B(MAO-B)以及胆碱乙酰基转移酶 (Ch AT)三种神经递质代谢相关基因的表达变化。结果发现 ,在小鼠黑质与纹状体中 ,MPTP导致 TH基因表达显著降低 ,而 MAO-B与 Ch AT基因的表达变化在黑质与纹状体则有所不同 ,在黑质 MPTP导致 MAO-B与 Ch AT基因表达的上升 ,在纹状体则略有下降。     

鼠胚神经干细胞移植对帕金森模型大鼠的治疗作用

背景：干细胞移植是治疗帕金森的有潜力的方法之一。 目的：观察神经干细胞纹状体移植对帕金森模型大鼠旋转行为及脑内多巴胺含量的影响。 方法：采用6-羟基多巴胺定点注射毁损黑质纹状体的方法构建帕金森大鼠模型;向造模成功的大鼠纹状体内分别移植1×106(共计20 μL)的第3代胚鼠神经干细胞或等量生理盐水。 结果与结论：神经干细胞移植后,帕金森大鼠的旋转行为明显改善。干细胞移植后3周,免疫组化检测发现移植干细胞的帕金森大鼠脑黑质部位酪氨酸羟化酶阳性细胞数增多,纹状体内可见酪氨酸羟化酶阳性细胞;荧光显微镜下观察发现Hoechst 33324d标记神经干细胞在移植针道附近最为密集,并向远隔部位迁徙。干细胞移植后8周,高效液相色谱检测显示移植干细胞的帕金森大鼠纹状体内多巴胺含量明显增高(P < 0.01)。说明神经干细胞脑内移植能够减轻6-羟基多巴胺引起的大鼠中脑黑质多巴胺能神经元的损伤,改善大鼠的旋转行为。     

帕金森病诊断技术进展

帕金森病早期临床表现不典型,但如能早期诊断帕金森病,应用保护性治疗,如应用保护黑质神经元药物等有可能减缓病程进展。结合最近几年国外对本病早期诊断技术的新进展做一综述。单光子发射计算机体层扫描（SPECT）及正电子发射计算机体层扫描（PET）对多巴胺神经元末梢功能的检测是目前诊断帕金森病最敏感的指标。应用磁共振波谱（^3H-MRS）测定脑内代谢物的浓度,可以了解脑组织的代谢及神经元的功能改变。同时磁共振成像（MRI）及弥散加权成像（DWI）亦能对早期诊断及鉴别诊断帕金森病起一定的作用。经颅超声成像技术（TCS）是一种新的非侵入性超声成像技术,发现PD患者的黑质（SN）区有回声增强,认为这些回声增强区的性质与SN区的铁含量增高有关。