Comparison of influenza virus yields and apoptosis-induction in an adherent and a suspension MDCK cell line

Cell culture-based manufacturing of influenza vaccines is ideally based on easily scalable platforms using suspension cells that grow in chemically defined media. Consequently, different adherent cell lines selected for high virus yields were adapted to grow in suspension culture. This includes the MDCK suspension cell line MDCK.SUS2, which was shown to be a suitable substrate for influenza virus propagation in previous studies. In this study, we investigated options for further improvement of influenza A/PR/8 (H1N1) virus titres and cell-specific virus yields. Best results were achieved by performing a 1:2 dilution with fresh medium at time of infection. In shake flask cultivations, even for multiplicities of infection as low as 10⁻⁵, all cells were infected at 36 h post infection as determined by flow cytometry. In addition, these cells showed a better viability than cells infected without previous washing steps, which was reflected by a reduced level of apoptotic cells, and virus yields exceeding 3 log₁₀ HAU/100 μL. Comparison of bioreactor infections of MDCK.SUS2 cells to the parental adherent MDCK cells showed similar HA titres of 2.94 and 3.15 log₁₀ HAU/100 μL and TCID₅₀ of 1 × 10⁹ and 2.37 × 10⁹ infectious virions/mL. Surprisingly, virus-induced apoptosis differed between the two cell lines, with the MDCK.SUS2 cells showing a much stronger apoptosis induction than the adherent MDCK cells. Obviously, despite their resistance to anoikis, the suspension cells were more susceptible to virus-induced apoptosis. Whether this is related to the adaptation process itself and/or to changes in cell survival pathways influenced by adhesion molecules or influenza virus proteins needs to be clarified in additional studies.     

Systems-based candidate genes for human response to influenza infection

Influenza A is a serious respiratory illness that can be debilitating and may cause complications leading to hospitalization and death. The outcome of infection with the influenza A virus is determined by a complex interplay of viral and host factors. With the ongoing threat of seasonal influenza and the potential emergence of new, more virulent strains of influenza viruses, we need to develop a better understanding of genetic variation in the human population and its association with severe outcomes from influenza infection. We propose a list of approximately 100 systems-based candidate genes for future study of the genetic basis of influenza disease and immunity in humans, based on evidence in the published literature for their potential role in the pathogenesis of this infection: binding of the virus to receptors on the host cell surface; cleavability of HA by host proteases; virus replication in host cells; destruction of host cells by apoptosis; state of immunocompetence of the individual host; and viral infections predisposing to bacterial infection.     

Differential activation of host cell signalling pathways through infection with two variants of influenza A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) in MDCK cells

In cell culture-based influenza vaccine production, few efforts have been undertaken to characterise virus–host cell interactions in detail. Two influenza virus strains that grew to different virus titres, and differed in virus dynamics, apoptosis induction and proteome changes were observed.     

禽(H9N2)亚型流感病毒感染汕头人群的报告

[目的 ]监测汕头市人群中的禽流感病毒感染情况。 [方法 ]采集流感样患者和鸡咽拭子标本 ,用常规鸡胚双腔法分离流感病毒并进行初步鉴定。对分离出 H9N2亚型流感病毒毒株的患者进行个案调查。同期采集不同年龄组普通人群、职业人群以及鸡血清标本 ,采用微量半加敏血球凝集抑制试验 ,检测 H9亚型毒株抗体。 [结果 ]从 3 3 7例流感样患者咽拭子标本中分离出红细胞凝集阳性标本 1 1份 (2 .9%)。其中 6株为 A(H3 N2 )亚型流感毒株 ,5株为 A(H9N2 )亚型流感毒株。普通人群 H9亚型病毒抗体检出率为 3 4 .0 %,职业人群检出率为 3 7.7%(P>0 .0 5 )。 [结论 ]汕头市人群中发现禽 H9N2亚型流感病毒感染 ,提示禽 H9N2亚型流感病毒能感染人     

Virus-specific T cells as correlate of (cross-)protective immunity against influenza

Since inactivated influenza vaccines mainly confer protective immunity by inducing strain-specific antibodies to the viral hemagglutinin, these vaccines only afford protection against infection with antigenically matching influenza virus strains. Due to the continuous emergence of antigenic drift variants of seasonal influenza viruses and the inevitable future emergence of pandemic influenza viruses, there is considerable interest in the development of influenza vaccines that induce broader protective immunity. It has long been recognized that influenza virus-specific CD8⁺ T cells directed to epitopes located in the relatively conserved internal proteins can cross-react with various subtypes of influenza A virus. This implies that these CD8⁺ T cells, induced by prior influenza virus infections or vaccinations, could afford heterosubtypic immunity. Furthermore, influenza virus-specific CD4⁺ T cells have been shown to be important in protection from infection, either via direct cytotoxic effects or indirectly by providing help to B cells and CD8⁺ T cells. In the present paper, we review the induction of virus-specific T cell responses by influenza virus infection and the role of virus-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in viral clearance and conferring protection from subsequent infections with homologous or heterologous influenza virus strains. Furthermore, we discuss vector-based vaccination strategies that aim at the induction of a cross-reactive virus-specific T cell response.     

Apoptosis and pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans

The pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans has not been clearly elucidated. Apoptosis may also play an important role. We studied autopsy specimens from 2 patients who died of infection with this virus. Apoptosis was observed in alveolar epithelial cells, which is the major target cell type for the viral replication. Numerous apoptotic leukocytes were observed in the lung of a patient who died on day 6 of illness. Our data suggest that apoptosis may play a major role in the pathogenesis of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans by destroying alveolar epithelial cells. This pathogenesis causes pneumonia and destroys leukocytes, leading to leukopenia, which is a prominent clinical feature of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans. Whether observed apoptotic cells were a direct result of the viral replication or a consequence of an overactivation of the immune system requires further studies.     

Antiviral Activity and Underlying Action Mechanism of Euglena Extract against Influenza Virus

It is difficult to match annual vaccines against the exact influenza strain that is spreading in any given flu season. Owing to the emergence of drug-resistant viral strains, new approaches for treating influenza are needed. Euglena gracilis (hereinafter Euglena), microalga, used as functional foods and supplements, have been shown to alleviate symptoms of influenza virus infection in mice. However, the mechanism underlying the inhibitory action of microalgae against the influenza virus is unknown. Here, we aimed to study the antiviral activity of Euglena extract against the influenza virus and the underlying action mechanism using Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Euglena extract strongly inhibited infection by all influenza virus strains examined, including those resistant to the anti-influenza drugs oseltamivir and amantadine. A time-of-addition assay revealed that Euglena extract did not affect the cycle of virus replication, and cell pretreatment or prolonged treatment of infected cells reduced the virus titer. Thus, Euglena extract may activate the host cell defense mechanisms, rather than directly acting on the influenza virus. Moreover, various minerals, mainly zinc, in Euglena extract were found to be involved in the antiviral activity of the extract. In conclusion, Euglena extract could be a potent agent for preventing and treating influenza.     

山东省2010年-2011年流感病原学监测分析

目的:通过对山东省2010年4月-2011年3月流行性感冒的病原学监测结果进行分析,了解流感毒株变异情况以及流感病原学特征,为这一地区的流感防治提供科学依据。方法:采集流感样病例(ILI)的咽拭子标本用荧光定量PCR方法和狗肾细胞(MDCK)进行流感病毒检测,病毒分离后采用血凝抑制方法(HI)进行流感病毒型别鉴定。结果:2010年-2011年监测年度共检测鼻、咽拭子标本10218份,检测到阳性标本1025例,阳性率为10.03%,经分型鉴定甲型H1N1流感病毒415例,季节性流感A(H3N2)250例,B型242例和A未分型118例。分离到流感病毒311株,病毒分离率为3%。结论:山东省2010年-2011年监测年度流感流行的优势毒株为新甲(H1)型,但同时有季节性流感A(H3N2)和B型流感存在,未发现流感变异毒株。流感发病人群与性别无关,但与年龄有关。     

Immunomodulatory Activity of Red Ginseng against Influenza A Virus Infection

Ginseng herbal medicine has been known to have beneficial effects on improving human health. We investigated whether red ginseng extract (RGE) has preventive effects on influenza A virus infection in vivo and in vitro. RGE was found to improve survival of human lung epithelial cells upon influenza virus infection. Also, RGE treatment reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory genes (IL-6, IL-8) probably in part through interference with the formation of reactive oxygen species by influenza A virus infection. Long-term oral administration of mice with RGE showed multiple immunomodulatory effects such as stimulating antiviral cytokine IFN-γ production after influenza A virus infection. In addition, RGE administration in mice inhibited the infiltration of inflammatory cells into the bronchial lumens. Therefore, RGE might have the potential beneficial effects on preventing influenza A virus infections via its multiple immunomodulatory functions.     

Bioprocess optimization for cell culture based influenza vaccine production

Uncertainties and shortcomings associated with the current influenza vaccine production processes demand attention and exploration of new vaccine manufacture technologies. Based on a newly developed mammalian cell culture-based production process we investigated selected process parameters and describe three factors that are shown to impact productivity, process robustness and development time. They are time of infection, harvest time and virus input, or multiplicity of infection (MOI). By defining the time of infection as 4-5 days post cell seeding and harvest time as 2-3 days post-infection and comparing their effect on virus production, MOI is subsequently identified as the most impactful process parameter for live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) manufacture. Infection at very low MOI (between 10⁻⁴ and 10⁻⁶ FFU/cell) resulted in high titer virus production (up to 30-fold productivity improvement) compared to higher MOI infections (10⁻³ to 10⁻² FFU/cell). Application of these findings has allowed us to develop a platform process that can reduce the development time to approximately three weeks for an influenza vaccine manufacture process for new strains.     

Bovine colostrum enhances natural killer cell activity and immune response in a mouse model of influenza infection and mediates intestinal immunity through toll-like receptors 2 and 4

Oral administration of bovine colostrum affects intestinal immunity, including an increased percentage of natural killer (NK) cells. However, effects on NK cell cytotoxic activity and resistance to infection as well as a potential mechanism remain unclear. Therefore, we investigated the effects of bovine colostrum (La Belle, Inc, Bellingham, WA) on the NK cytotoxic response to influenza infection and on toll-like receptor (TLR) activity in a primary intestinal epithelial cell culture. We hypothesized that colostrum would increase NK cell activity and that TLR-2 and TLR-4 blocking would reduce interleukin 6 production by epithelial cells in response to contact stimulation with colostrum. Four-month-old female C57BL/6 mice were supplemented with 1 g of colostrum per kilogram of body weight before and after infection with influenza A virus (H1N1). Animals were assessed for weight loss, splenic NK cell activity, and lung virus titers. Colostrum-supplemented mice demonstrated less reduction in body weight after influenza infection, indicating a less severe infection, increased NK cell cytotoxicity, and less virus burden in the lungs compared with controls. Colostrum supplementation enhanced NK cell cytotoxicity and improved the immune response to primary influenza virus infection in mice. To investigate a potential mechanism, a primary culture of small intestine epithelial cells was then stimulated with colostrum. Direct activation of epithelial cells resulted in increased interleukin 6 production, which was inhibited with TLR-2 and TLR-4 blocking antibodies. The interaction between colostrum and immunity may be dependent, in part, on the interaction of colostrum components with innate receptors at the intestinal epithelium, including TLR-2 and TLR-4.     

ViroSpot microneutralization assay for antigenic characterization of human influenza viruses

The hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay has been used for the antigenic characterization of influenza viruses for decades. However, the majority of recent seasonal influenza A viruses of the H3N2 subtype has lost the capacity to agglutinate erythrocytes of various species. The hemagglutination (HA) activity of other A(H3N2) strains is generally sensitive to the action of the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir, which indicates that the neuraminidase and not the hemagglutinin is responsible for the HA activity. These findings complicate the antigenic characterization and selection of A(H3N2) vaccine strains, calling for alternative antigenic characterization assays. Here we describe the development and use of the ViroSpot microneutralization (MN) assay as a reliable and robust alternative for the HI assay. Serum neutralization of influenza A(H3N2) reference virus strains and epidemic isolates was determined by automated readout of immunostained cell monolayers, in a format designed to minimize the influence of infectious virus doses on serum neutralization titers. Neutralization of infection was largely independent from rates of viral replication and cell-to-cell transmission, facilitating the comparison of different virus isolates. Other advantages of the ViroSpot MN assay include its relative insensitivity to variation in test dose of infectious virus, automated capture and analyses of residual infection patterns, and compatibility with standardized large scale analyses. Using this assay, a number of epidemic influenza A(H3N2) strains that failed to agglutinate erythrocytes, were readily characterized antigenically.     

贵州省2013—2016年B型流感病毒流行特征分析

目的了解贵州省B型流感病毒的流行特征和规律,为其预防与控制提供依据。方法采用描述性方法对贵州省2013年4月1日—2016年3月31日B型流感病毒RT PCR检测结果进行统计。结果贵州省2013—2016年3个监测年度B型流感病毒RT PCR检测阳性1 904份,其中By系1 215份、Bv系642份,2013年4月—2014年3月、2014年4月—2015年3月2个监测年度B型流感的优势流行株都是By系,而2015年4月—2016年3月是Bv和By系共同流行,流行季节主要在冬春季;B型流感病毒男性检出所占比率较高,占56.83%;15岁以下低年龄组人群B型流感病毒检出数最高（70.80%）,而Bv系在0~岁年龄组最高（42.37%）,By系在5~岁年龄组最高（35.56%）;混合感染病原组合构成主要以By+Bv为主,占67.65%,与B型有关的混合感染数占95.59%。结论贵州省B型流感病毒存在By和Bv两种系别的流行,流行季节为冬春季,男性感染病例多于女性,发病以15岁以下人群为主,加强低年龄群体流感疫苗的接种和监测具有重要意义。     

长沙市1例人感染H3N8禽流感病例的流行病学调查和病原学分析

目的 了解人感染H3N8禽流感病例的流行病学特征和临床特征及其病原的分子生物学特征，为人感染H3N8禽流感防控提供科学依据。方法 采用流行病学调查方法对长沙市2022年5月1例人感染H3N8禽流感病例的可疑暴露史、感染途径、发病及就诊经过，以及密切接触者、可疑暴露者等涉疫重点人员进行现场调查，并进行描述性分析；采用核酸检测和基因测序技术，进行病原学检测和基因特征分析。结果 病例发病前6 d有活禽交易市场暴露史，在活禽交易市场、活禽来源批发市场均检测出禽流感H3、N8亚型阳性。深度基因测序显示，病毒对哺乳动物发生适应性突变，对烷胺类药物敏感性降低，未检测到神经氨酸酶抑制剂类药物和聚合酶抑制剂类药物相关的耐药性突变。结论 病例暴露于被H3N8禽流感病毒污染的活禽交易市场环境而感染，未发现人际间传播。     

Efficient influenza A virus production in high cell density using the novel porcine suspension cell line PBG.PK2.1

Seasonal and pandemic influenza respiratory infections are still a major public health issue. Vaccination is the most efficient way to prevent influenza infection. One option to produce influenza vaccines is cell-culture based virus propagation. Different host cell lines, such as MDCK, Vero, AGE1.CR or PER.C6 cells have been shown to be a good substrate for influenza virus production. With respect to the ease of scale-up, suspension cells should be preferred over adherent cells. Ideally, they should replicate different influenza virus strains with high cell-specific yields. Evaluation of new cell lines and further development of processes is of considerable interest, as this increases the number of options regarding the design of manufacturing processes, flexibility of vaccine production and efficiency.Here, PBG.PK2.1, a new mammalian cell line that was developed by ProBioGen AG (Germany) for virus production is presented. The cells derived from immortal porcine kidney cells were previously adapted to growth in suspension in a chemically-defined medium. Influenza virus production was improved after virus adaptation to PBG.PK2.1 cells and optimization of infection conditions, namely multiplicity of infection and trypsin concentration. Hemagglutinin titers up to 3.24 log₁₀(HA units/100 µL) were obtained in fed-batch mode in bioreactors (700 mL working volume). Evaluation of virus propagation in high cell density culture using a hollow-fiber based system (ATF2) demonstrated promising performance: Cell concentrations of up to 50 × 10⁶ cells/mL with viabilities exceeding 95%, and a maximum HA titer of 3.93 log₁₀(HA units/100 µL). Analysis of glycosylation of the viral HA antigen expressed showed clear differences compared to HA produced in MDCK or Vero cell lines. With an average cell-specific productivity of 5000 virions/cell, we believe that PBG.PK2.1 cells are a very promising candidate to be considered for next-generation influenza virus vaccine production.     

Productivity, apoptosis, and infection dynamics of influenza A/PR/8 strains and A/PR/8-based reassortants

In cell culture-based influenza vaccine production significant efforts are directed towards virus seed optimization for maximum yields. Typically, high growth reassortants (HGR) containing backbones of six gene segments of e.g. influenza A/PR/8, are generated from wild type strains. Often, however, HA and TCID₅₀ titres obtained do not meet expectations and further optimization measures are required.     

Scalable production of influenza virus in HEK-293 cells for efficient vaccine manufacturing

Cell culture processes offer an attractive alternative to conventional chicken egg-based influenza vaccine production methods. However, most protocols still rely on the use of adherent cells, which makes process scale-up a challenging issue. In this study, it is demonstrated that the HEK-293 human cell line is able to efficiently replicate influenza virus. Production in serum-free suspension of HEK-293 cultures resulted in high titers of infectious influenza viruses for different subtypes and variants including A/H1, A/H3 and B strains. After virus adaptation and optimization of infection conditions, production in 3-L bioreactor resulted in titers of up to 10⁹ IVP/mL demonstrating the scale-up potential of the process.     

A replication-incompetent virus possessing an uncleavable hemagglutinin as an influenza vaccine

Vaccination is one of the most effective measures to protect against influenza virus infection. Inactivated and live-attenuated influenza vaccines are available; however, their efficacy is suboptimal. To develop a safe and more immunogenic vaccine, we produced a novel replication-incompetent influenza virus that possesses uncleavable hemagglutinin (HA) and tested its vaccine potential. The uncleavable HA was engineered by substituting the arginine at the C-terminus of HA1 with threonine, which prevents cleavage of HA into its HA1 and HA2 subunits, preventing fusion between the host and viral membranes. Although this fusion-deficient HA influenza virus that possesses uncleavable HA (uncleavable HA virus) could undergo multiple cycles of replication in only wild-type HA-expressing cells, it could infect normal cells and express viral proteins in infected cells, but could not generate infectious virus from infected cells due to the uncleavable HA. When C57BL/6 mice were intranasally immunized with the uncleavable HA virus, influenza-specific IgG and IgA antibodies were detected in nasal wash and bronchoalveolar lavage samples and in serum. In addition, influenza-specific CD8(+) T cells accumulated in the lungs of these mice. Moreover, mice immunized with the uncleavable HA virus were protected against a challenge of lethal doses of influenza virus, unlike mice immunized with a formalin-inactivated virus. These findings demonstrate that this fusion-deficient virus, which possesses uncleavable HA, is a suitable influenza vaccine candidate.     

Biopolymer encapsulated live influenza virus as a universal CD8+ T cell vaccine against influenza virus

Current influenza virus vaccines primarily elicit antibodies and can be rendered ineffective by antigenic drift and shift. Vaccines that elicit CD8+ T cell responses targeting less variable proteins may function as universal vaccines that have broad reactivity against different influenza virus strains. To generate such a universal vaccine, we encapsulated live influenza virus in a biopolymer and delivered it to mice subcutaneously. This vaccine was safe, induced potent CD8+ T cell immunity and protected mice against heterosubtypic lethal challenge. Safety of subcutaneous (SQ) vaccination was tested in Rag−/−γc−/− double knockout mice which we show cannot control intranasal infection. Biopolymer encapsulation of live influenza virus could be used to develop universal CD8+ T cell vaccines against heterosubtypic and pandemic strains.     

2017-2018年广州市甲型H1N1流感病毒耐药基因变异监测

目的 对广州市流感监测人群呼吸道标本进行甲型H1N1流感病毒分离和测序,并对耐药基因突变和遗传进化特征进行分析。方法 2017年1月-2018年3月,对4家流感监测医院的5831份监测标本进行甲型H1N1流感病毒核酸检测,将阳性标本接种MDCK细胞进行流感病毒分离和测序,应用DNA Star7.1软件和MEGA 4.0软件对耐药基因进行测序分析。结果 5831份监测标本中检出甲型H1N1核酸阳性标本222份,检出率为3.81%,其中分离甲型H1N1流感病毒61株,分离率为1.05%。有2株病毒分离株出现了H274Y突变,突变率为3.28%。所有病毒分离株均发生了S31N突变,突变率为100%,同时另有2株出现V27A突变,突变率为3.28%。部分2017年毒株和2018年毒株已形成于A/Michigan/45/2015疫苗株分支之外的另一独立小分支。结论 2017年广州市流感监测病例中监测到2株H1N1流感病毒分离株为奥司他韦耐药突变株,且该耐药株均位于当前疫苗株流行分支以外的独立分支,有必要对广州市甲型H1N1流感病毒进行持续监测。