Approach to the patient with gynecomastia

Gynecomastia is a common and sometimes distressing condition that may occur in males of all ages. Although most cases have benign causes and many are self-limited, male breast enlargement may also be a sign of underlying systemic disease or drug toxicity. Although rare, male breast cancer must also be considered in the differential diagnosis. A careful diagnostic evaluation should be pursued, tailored to the individual patient's circumstances. Treatment may include reassurance, medication, or surgery.     

Approach to the patient with recurrent neprolithiasis

Although recurring nephrolithiasis may not be as common as single-episode disease, it poses greater problems to the patient's daily lifestyle and general future health status. The general need for an adequate history, examination, and radiological assessment is acknowledged, but a more intensive investigative and management approach is required. Investigations for secondary causes are paramount and may lead to identification of unusual metabolic abnormalities and specific therapies. Such medical approaches entail consideration of dietary adjustments to lower the urinary excretion of components of the renal stones, pharmacological therapies to modulate urinary constituents and limit renal stone risk, and monitoring efficacy of the therapy over time. This approach will prevent significant deterioration of renal function and other serious metabolic consequences.     

Approach to the patient with postpartum thyroiditis

Postpartum thyroiditis (PPT) is the occurrence of de novo autoimmune thyroid disease, excluding Graves' disease, in the first year postpartum. The incidence of PPT is 5.4% in the general population, and it is increased in individuals with other autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes mellitus. The classic presentation of PPT of hyperthyroidism followed by hypothyroidism is seen in 22% of cases. The majority of women with PPT experience an isolated hypothyroid phase (48%), with the remainder experiencing isolated thyrotoxicosis (30%). Up to 50% of women who are thyroid antibody positive (thyroid peroxidase antibody and/or thyroglobulin antibody) in the first trimester will develop PPT. Symptoms are more common in the hypothyroid phase of PPT and include fatigue, dry skin, and impaired memory. Despite multiple studies exploring the relationship between PPT and postpartum depression, or postpartum depression in thyroid antibody-positive euthyroid women, the data are conflicting, and no firm conclusions can be reached. Long-term follow-up of women who had an episode of PPT reveals a 20-40% incidence of permanent primary hypothyroidism. In a single study, selenium administration significantly decreased the incidence of PPT, but replication of the findings is needed before the recommendation can be made that all pregnant thyroid peroxidase antibody-positive women receive selenium. The indication for treating the hyperthyroid phase of PPT is control of symptoms, whereas treatment of the hypothyroid phase of PPT is indicated for symptomatic relief as well as in women who are either breastfeeding or attempting to conceive.     

Approach to the patient with spontaneous hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia is common in daily clinical practice and often occurs during the treatment of diabetes mellitus. However, a small minority of hypoglycemia encountered in clinical practice is spontaneous and thus not induced by glycemic lowering agents. These spontaneous hypoglycemic events confront the clinician with a diagnostic enigma. Although the trained clinician can recognize the autonomic and neuroglycopenic symptoms of hypoglycemia even in a patient not on insulin, it remains challenging to decipher the etiology of a spontaneous hypoglycemic event. A logical and stepwise approach to the spontaneous hypoglycemic event allows for a conclusive diagnosis. This diagnostic process consists of adequately diagnosing hypoglycemia by fulfilling Whipple's triad, stratifying patients according to their clinical status and analyzing a full hypoglycemic blood panel. A complete hypoglycemic blood panel should include the analysis of glucose, insulin, C-peptide, pro-insulin, insulin antibodies and the presence of oral hypoglycemic agents. For patients with episodes of hypoglycemia induced by excessive endogenous insulin, additional imaging is often required to detect the presence of an underlying insulinoma. By diagnosing the underlying cause of the spontaneous hypoglycemia, the physician also diagnosis the mechanism by which the hypoglycemic event occurs. Allowing for a problem orientated therapeutic approach.MethodologyThe present review is based upon a comprehensive PubMed search between 1985 and 2013. This uses search terms of spontaneous hypoglycemia, insulinoma, nesidioblastosis, insulin auto-immunity, noninsulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia syndrome, hormone deficiency, pro-IGF II, and pro-insulin growth factor II, and cross reference searching of pivotal articles in the subject.     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.     

肾上腺皮质癌患者的诊治

一22岁女性患者因"腹腔镜下切除8.6 cm×8 cm左肾上腺皮质癌(ACC)后"来诊.术前6个月,她有男性化表现及闭经,CT提示无局部浸润的左肾上腺占位,血压、血糖及血钾水平均正常,但血清雄激素水平增高,外科手术完整切除肿瘤,病理提示为ACC(改良Weiss评分6分).     

肾上腺皮质癌患者的诊治

一22岁女性患者因"腹腔镜下切除8.6 cm×8 cm左肾上腺皮质癌(ACC)后"来诊.术前6个月,她有男性化表现及闭经,CT提示无局部浸润的左肾上腺占位,血压、血糖及血钾水平均正常,但血清雄激素水平增高,外科手术完整切除肿瘤,病理提示为ACC(改良Weiss评分6分).     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.     

特纳综合征的临诊应对

病例 患者K.S.,女,11.5岁,因身材矮小而被发现患有45,X特纳综合征(TS).足月分娩,出生体重3.5 kg(0.21 s),身长50.8 cm(0.59 s).父母发现该女婴有手足肥厚、喂养困难和胃食道反流.     

Approach to the patient with subclinical hyperthyroidism

Endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism, defined by normal circulating levels of free T4 and T3 and low levels of TSH, is a common clinical entity and is typically caused by the same conditions that account for the majority of cases of overt hyperthyroidism: Graves' disease, toxic multinodular goiter, and solitary autonomously functioning thyroid nodules. Subclinical hyperthyroidism has been associated with an increased risk of atrial fibrillation and mortality, decreased bone mineral density in postmenopausal women, and mild hyperthyroid symptoms. Treatment of subclinical hyperthyroidism remains controversial, given the lack of prospective randomized controlled trials showing clinical benefit with restoration of the euthyroid state. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to treat older individuals whose serum TSH levels are less than 0.1 mU/liter and certain high-risk patients, even when the serum TSH is between 0.1 and the lower limit of the normal range.     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.     

肾上腺意外瘤患者的临诊应对

一45岁女性,因间歇性上腹痛行CT检查,发现肾上腺部位有3 cm大小的均质肿块.患者长期肥胖、有双向情感障碍、哮喘、3年高血压及糖尿病史;无骨折史、记忆衰退或月经紊乱;除减肥外,无其他诉求.体检结果如下:血压118/56 mm Hg(1 mm Hg=0.133 kPa)、心率78次/min、体重160 kg、身高170cm、体重指数55.4 kg/m2.患者肥胖、多血质、颈背部脂肪轻度增多;无其他皮肤改变、多毛或肌肉无力.多血质可能存在已久,近3年来容貌无变化.CT示肿块边缘规则,有点状钙化,但平扫CT值为11 Hounsfield Units(HU).     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.     

垂体腺癌的临诊应对

回顾性分析经病理证实的原发性垂体腺癌1例,结合影像学上肿瘤的侵袭性进展过程和临床特征进行分析.垂体腺癌生长迅速,肿瘤生长特点有助于临床诊断;其治疗方案与垂体腺瘤也有所不同.临床上,垂体肿瘤增长迅速并伴有侵袭性时需警惕垂体腺癌的可能性,针对垂体腺癌的临床诊疗,仍需进一步累积经验.     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.     

Approach to the patient with suspected vasculitis

By taking a careful patient history, conducting a thorough physical examination, knowing the clinical features of vasculitis, and using selected laboratory tests, the physician can diagnosis vasculitis tentatively. Recognizing the pattern of organ involvement provides a clue to the type of vasculitis present. Serologic laboratory tests for ANCAs or hepatitis B or C may help confirm the presence of the underlying vasculitis, and a definitive diagnosis can be confirmed by a biopsy of involved tissue or by angiography.     

绝经期症状的临诊应对

患者为49岁女性,一年前开始间断出现面部潮热和入睡困难,近来症状加重;近两年中月经周期为6～8周,最后一次来潮在1年前;曾补充大豆和黑升麻类草药,症状无明显缓解;近期自觉阴道干燥和性交疼痛,因而要求用雌激素治疗.